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COFi'RIGlIT DEPOSn^ 



Profitable 
Stock Raising 

A Careful Discussion 

of the Problems Involved in the Develop- 
ment of Profitable Live Stock and 
the Maintenance of Soil Fertility 



By 

CLARENCE ALBERT SHAMEL 

Editor Orange Judd Farmer 



ILLUSTRATED 



NEW YORK 

ORANGE JUDD COMPANY 
1911 






6 



Copyright, igii, by 

ORANGE JUDD COMPANY 

All Rights Reserved 



Printed in U. S. A. 



lCI.A:jS0>-:;r)4 



PREFACE 

UPON improved live stock the prosperity of the 
American farmer depends. If he so desires, 
every American farmer can have profitable farm 
animals. To fully explain the general principles 
which enter into profitable live stock, this little 
book is written and given to the public. It points 
out the profitable types of farm animals, how to 
handle them so as to get the best returns, how to 
select breeding stock, how to feed and market all 
classes of farm animals. Technicalities have been 
carefully avoided so that anyone can, if he will, 
derive much benefit from studying its pages. 

In the preparation of this book, I have been very 
ably assisted by Mr. Fred L. Petty, assistant editor 
of Orange Judd Farmer, to whom I hereby 
acknowledge my obligations. 

CLARENCE A. SHAMEL. 
Chicago, October, 1910. 



til 



Table of Contents 



CHAPTER I. 
The Live Stock Field 



Page 



Live stock most important factor in farm life — Its 
production not keeping pace with population — 
Statistics show supply short of actual requirements 
— Some problems of profitable stock production — 
Valuable land demands more efficient animals — 
Rich land depends upon live stock — Value of ma- 
nure should receive greater appreciation — ^The need 
of more and better animals — Breed better and feed 
better. 

CHAPTER 11. 

Principles of Permanent Agriculture 18 

What permanent soil use requires — China, India and 
other famine-plagued countries have small live stock 
supply — ^The prosperous agriculture of western Eu- 
rope coincident with large stock production — Russia 
has little live stock and an eight-bushel wheat 
yield — ^Abandoned tobacco lands of Maryland and 
Virginia were worn out by the one-crop system — 
Some accepted principles of soil maintenance — Ro- 
tation alone not sufficient — Permanent agriculture 
established most easily by means of systems of live 
stock farming — Care of live stock demands high use 
of intelligence — Is conducive to contentment on 
farm — Makes for better citizenship — Discourages 
itineracy of farm labor — Live stock is the connect- 
ing link between rotation and permanent agricul- 
ture. 

CHAPTER III. 

Agricultural Situation in the East 32 

New England and North Atlantic states need a 
new agriculture — Movement of eastern migration — 
Abandoned farms can be acquired cheaply — Dairy- 
ing, poultry, sheep and swine should be made the 
basis of operations — Unlimited markets easily ac- 
cessible — Dairying demands clover, builds up soil. 



Vi TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Page 
increases yields — Rational agriculture based upon 
live stock means an affluent agricultural East — 
Haphazard methods must go. 

CHAPTER IV. 
Southern Agriculture Needs Farm Animals 41 

The one -crop idea in the South — Why old fields 
were abandoned — Present acre production low in 
many instances — Readjustment of southern agri- 
culture in progress — Possibilities for live stock farm- 
ing in South — Best forage crops thrive — Cottonseed 
furnishes unexcelled concentrates — The South should 
produce meat — Cattle and hogs thrive and are pro- 
lific in southern meadows — The South should grow 
its own work stock — Wonderful land for legumes — 
These will furnish forage and soil nitrogen — In- 
creased fertility will produce more cotton and 
tobacco than before, and animal products in addi- 
tion — The South buys too much foodstuff, should 
produce it at home — A rebirth of southern agricul- 
ture with live stock a balancing factor. 

CHAPTER V. 

Let the West Heed the Warning „ 57 

Numerous evidences of waning productivity — ^Un- 
intelligent cropping showing its effect upon lands 
of nation's granary — Lowered fertility contempo- 
raneous with lessened stock production — Shipping 
away vast quantities of corn and hay bad economy 
— Can live stock pay on $200 land? — More sheep 
and hogs — More clover, alfalfa and cowpeas — More 
nitrogen in soil — Larger crops — Plenty of feed — 
More meat animals and more manure — Restore the 
humus and build up the soil — Com, cattle and 
clovers the tripod supporting western farms. 

CHAPTER VI. 

Does Live Stock Pay ? 68 

All live stock is not profitable — Four dairy cows to 
do the work of two not profitable — Scrub stock 
must go from valuable land — Scrub dairy animals 
do not pay board — Inferior meat animals cannot 
utilize feed economically — How to weed out the 
scrubs — Test the dairy stock — Select breeding ani- 



TABLE OF CONTENTS Vll 

Page 
mals intelligently — Examine blood lines carefully — 
The individuality of the animal — Not all pure bred 
stock superior breeders — Get both blood and indi- 
viduality — Indiscriminate breeding spells disaster — 
How to grade up the herd or flock. 

CHAPTER VII. 

Basis of Profitable Stock Breeding 76 

Good blood lines — Discriminating selection — Good 
feed and shelter — Use pure bred sire and good 
grade stock — Class and breed determined by en- 
vironment and personal taste — ^Type and conforma- 
tion — Quality, what it is and how to detect it — • 
Best animal the one which utilizes feed most eco- 
nomically in attaining end for which it is kept. 

CHAPTER VIII. 

Principles of Breeding 89 

Objects of breeding — Cross breeding — Line breeding 
— In and in breeding — Relative influence of sire 
and dam — Is a good individual, not pure bred, pref- 
erable to a mediocre pure bred sire ? — Care of sire — 
Care of dam — How it differs from feeding for market 
— Blood cannot do its best without good feeding. 

CHAPTER IX. 

Feeds and Feeding 99 

Principles of feeding — Nutritive ratio — Balanced 
ration — Feed depends upon the result desired — Use 
of legumes — ^Alfalfa, clover and cowpeas — Value of 
grasses — Grains and concentrates — Succulent feed — 
Special feeds — Suitable combinations for different 
feeding purposes — Fattening rations and mainte- 
nance rations — Individuality of animals influences 
feeding capacity. 

CHAPTER X. 

Profit from the Dairy 116 

Magnitude of dairy industry — Dairy breeds and 
types — Efficiency in dairy cows — Feeds and feed- 
ing — Cooperative breeding and testing — Soiling 
crops and the silo — Winter feeds and concentrates 
— ^Types of dairy barns — Dairy sanitation — Effects 
of dairying on soil. 



VUl TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Page 
CHAPTER XI. 

Sheep Under Farm Conditions 145 

Review of history of sheep in America — Breeds and 
types — ^The type now required — Breeding and man- 
agement — Lambing — Care of ewes and lambs — 
Sheep in summer — Pasture and management — 
Docking, shearing and clipping — Fattening for 
market — Benefit to soil — "The sheep has a golden 
hoof." 

CHAPTER Xn. 

The Swine Industry 173 

Factors of success — Breeds and types — Principles 
of selection — Care and feeding of breeding swine — 
One or two litters per year — Pasture and forage — 
Systems of grazing — Hogging off crops — Details of 
fattening — Utility of swine on high-priced land — 
What the market demands. 

CHAPTER XIII. 

The American Horse Market 189 

Magnitude of American horse values — Small pro- 
portion of mares bred — Future horse demand — 
Breeds and types — Choice of stallion — Kind of mare 
to breed — Scrub mare should be eliminated — Care 
of mare — Why so few mares breed — Feed and care 
of colt — Its first winter — Colt as a yearling — Mar- 
ket demands and values. 

CHAPTER XIV. 

Mules Are Profitable 203 

Strong market demand — Prices always high — 
Types — Breeds of jacks — American jacks improve- 
ment upon imported ones — Type of mare to breed — 
What constitutes a good mule — Life, weight, and 
action. 

CHAPTER XV. 

Baby Beep 214 

What it is — Kind of calves to feed — Age and con- 
dition — Kinds of feed — How to secure best results — 
Shelter and water — Forages and concentrates — 
Succulent feeds. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS ix 

Page 
CHAPTER XVI. 

Hothouse Lambs 229 

What they are — ^The market demand — How to plan 
for them — Breeds best adapted — ^Time of lambing — 
Care of lambs — Marketing — Prices and profits. 

CHAPTER XVII. 

Pastures for Grazing Farm Animals 237 

Permanent pastures on farm land — English prac- 
tice — Build up the grass land — Feeding values. 

CHAPTER XVIII. 

Finishing Stock for Market 244 

Factors influencing feeding — Cost and value — Feed- 
ing periods — How to feed during the finishing period 
— Use of high-priced concentrates — Preparing for 
shipment — Finishing horses for market — Highest 
finish or bloom impossible without quality in ani- 
mals — ^A stunted animal never regains its quality — 
Profits of stock finishing. 

CHAPTER XIX 

Outlook for Live Stock 258 

The beef situation — Cattle business in transitional stage 
— BreakiQg up of western ranches — Encroachment of 
sheep industry upon cattle ranges — Advent of home- 
steader — Status of industry in Texas — Increasing beef 
supply demanded by Northwest — No more cheap beef 
likely — Conclusion . 



List of Illustrations 



Page 

Elevation of Horse Barn 12 

Ground Plan of Horse Barn 13 

A Northwestern Farm Granary 27 

Self-Feeder for a Missouri Farm 46 

Beef Cattle Barn 66 

Iowa Hog House ^2 

Elevation of Hog House 84 

Floor Plan of Hog House 85 

South Dakota Stock Barn 104 

Modern Dairy House 124 

A Michigan Dairy Barn and Silo 133 

Elevation of Dairy Barn 142 

Ground Plan of Dairy Barn 143 

An Idaho Lambing Shed 155 

A Brick Feeding Floor 180 

Movable Hog Shelter 184 

An Illinois Round Barn 191 

General Farm Barn 199 

Heating Water Supply 223 

Run for Small Pigs 239 

Rear View of Dairy Barn 1 253 



INTRODUCTION 

No factor is of as great importance in American 
agriculture as the keeping of profitable live stock. 
By profitable live stock is meant stock that will 
pay for its keep and return a net profit. The value 
of profitable live stock is appreciated by a large 
number of people, but the bulk of the American 
farmers do not thoroughly understand why one 
animal is more profitable than another. It is 
manifestly bad policy to keep a dairy cow at a 
cost for feeding and maintenance of $60 a year when 
she returns only $40 or $50 in the form of butter 
and milk in addition to her calf. Dairy statisticians 
tell us that hundreds of thousands of dairy cows in 
the United States belong to that unprofitable type. 

It is also perfectly apparent that a meat produc- 
ing animal of any kind which does not mature 
rapidly, attain at least fair size in a short time, 
which does not utilize every bit of food eaten, and 
cannot be placed on the market at a good price, is 
also unprofitable. Live stock statisticians also tell 
us that there are many thousands of meat produc- 
ing animals of this unprofitable type, particularly 
on the general farms in America. 

Because of this lack of information, it is highly 
important that the general farmer, as well as the 
special stock farmer, should have these matters 
brought to his attention. For this reason this 
little book is written. It is impossible, in a work 
of this kind, to go into detail in any particular line. 
The thought throughout is to call attention, first, 
to the general principles involved in every branch 
pf profitable live stock husbandry and to give 



2 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

specific instances illustrating the problems dis- 
cussed. It gops without saying that if the general 
principles are tlioroughly understood, and if these 
general principles are i'.'ustrated even briefly, the 
progressive farmer will be able to work out his own 
salvation ; consequently, while there are number- 
less books on different phases of live stock, there 
are none which fill the need which this book is 
intended to supply. 

The exclusive grain growers of the Northwest are 
rapidly changing to diversified agriculture. In cer- 
tain sections of South Dakota, for example, wheat 
and oats formerly occupied all the attention of the 
farmer. Yields greatly decreased until farming on 
a large scale became unprofitable except during the 
most favorable seasons. Diversification is rapidly 
taking place. Large numbers of farm animals are 
being kept. Corn is being grown, potatoes and 
even cabbage occupy a part of the land. In New 
England the worn-out farms are being made profit- 
able by the keeping of dairy animals, of hogs 
and of poultry, by the growing of alfalfa, cowpeas, 
crimson clover and vetch, by the buying and feed- 
ing on the farms of some form of concentrated feeds 
like oil meal, cottonseed meal or refuse from the 
flour mills of the Northwest. It has been definitely 
proved that these older farms along the Atlantic 
coast can be profitably handled if live stock is kept, 
if leguminous plants are grown and if, third, but 
not least in importance, the soils are given thorough 
and intelligent treatment. 

But it is not only South Dakota; it is not only 
New England; it is not only the older states along 
the Atlantic coast that must give this matter of 
profitable live stock careful attention. Illinois and 
Iowa, with their apparently inexhaustible soils. 



INTRODUCTION 3 

are finding that with the increase in land values, 
it is impossible to pay even a reasonable interest 
on the investment unless, along with corn, hogs, 
cattle and sheep are raised; unless these black soils 
are frequently rested by the growing of some legu- 
minous crops and by the feeding of these same crops 
to animals raised at home. 

In profitable live stock production, of course, the 
first thing is the raising of sufficient feed. The 
next thing is the selection of animals in any de- 
partment of animal industry whatever that will 
more than pay for their keep. If these two things 
are borne in mind; if particular attention is given 
to the treatment of soil to produce larger crops; if 
particular attention is given to getting rid of un- 
desirable animals, no matter what the sacrifice may 
be ; if particular attention is given to the selection 
of breeding stock of the chosen type, not only will 
the animals themselves become more profitable, 
but the fertility of the land will be built up rather 
than depleted. The producing capacity of every 
section of the United States will be increased by 
the keeping of profitable live stock. 

So it comes about that this book is written to call 
attention to these important problems, and it is 
given to the public with the hope that it will be a 
factor in greater prosperity to the American farmer. 



CHAPTER I 

The Live Stock Field 

^ Live stock is the most important factor in farm 
life. Without animals the fertility of the soil can- 
not be maintained. Without maintaining- soil fer- 
tility profitable crop production is not possible. 
True, in a few thickly settled countries it is not 
possible to keep large numbers of farm animals, 
but where this condition exists, mineral plant food 
must be brought in from the outside. There is a 
limit to the supply of this mineral plant food, con- 
sequently the most satisfactory agriculture to work 
for must be that system which includes the best 
types of live stock. 

Under present conditions in the United States 
the production of live stock is not keeping pace with 
the^ population. In spite of the fact that in the 
United States the total number of animals has in- 
creased during the past years, the fact remains 
that, measured by increasing population, we are in 
a diminished period of actual production. During 
the year 1909 there was much complaint among 
wage workers because of the high price of meats. 
Some of the resentment which was shown towards 
slaughterers and retailers had a good basis in fact, 
because both of these classes, particularly the latter,' 
are absorbing a greater part of the value of the 
carcass than is warranted. 

Making full allowance for this, the underlying 
reason for the increased cost of meat animals and 
also of work animals will be found to be the relative 
decrease in production. This reason is bound to 

i 



THE LIVE STOCK FIELD 5 

increase in magnitude as the years go by, because 
of the unwillingness or inability of the American 
farmers to increase their production of animals as 
rapidly as the population increases. This fact 
does not necessarily warrant any unusual alarm, 
because, as the situation demands it, a readjust- 
ment between supply and consumption will take 
place. Just as soon as it becomes apparent that 
more animals must be raised, farmers will be found 
who will increase their holdings of live stock. Con- 
ditions in the United States, however, do indicate 
that the producer of live stock is assured of higher 
values, which, of course, is gratifying to him. The 
consumer also must make up his mind to pay a 
higher price, whether he wants to or not. The 
trend of high prices, however, sympathetically 
shows the relation of supply to demand. When 
prices are high, it goes without saying that the 
supply is not keeping pace with demand. 

The following table indicates the price at the 
beginning of 1910 for the different classes of 
animals produced in the United States, in com- 
parison with the highest prices ever previously re- 
corded : 

Changes from High Point 

/—High point->, 

Year Price 1910 Change Per ct. 

Horses 1909 $91.02 $101.50 +$10.48 115 

Mules 1908 99.72 108.57 + 8.85 8.9 

IVTilch cows 1909 32.00 35.25 + 3.25 10 1 

other cattle 1900 24.83 20.76 — 4.07 16 4 

Hogs 1907 7.63 9.15 + 1.52 19.9 

Sheep 1907 3.89 4.07 + .18 4.6 

The above table indicates that the prices of all 
classes of farm animals, with the exception of those 
listed under fat cattle, have increased, and of 



6 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

course, is highly satisfactory, to the producer. This, 
however, does not tell the whole story. Such a 
comparison would not be complete without a cor- 
responding showing of the variance of the present 
situation, as shown by the comparison of present 
prices with the lowest prices ever recorded at the 
bottom of periods of live stock or financial depres- 
sion. 

Indeed, such a showing probably best pictures 
the present highly satisfactory condition of the live 
stock industry. An examination of the table pre- 
sented below will show that milch cows touched 
their lowest value in 1892, and since that time there 
has been an increase in the average price per head 
amounting to 64.7 per cent. In 1895 beef cattle 
touched their lowest point, since which time there 
has been an advance of 46.7 per cent. 

Sheep touched the bottom in 1896 with the aver- 
age value per head of $1.60, as compared with an 
average of $4.07 at present, while hogs reached their 
greatest depression in 1897, when they were worth 
$4.13 per head as against $9.15 at present. 
Horses and mules reached the bottom in 1897-98, 
since which time they have increased in value by 
201 per cent in the case of horses and 173 per cent 
in the case of mules. 

The accompan3'ing statement shows the present 
value of the different classes of live stock, together 
with the lowest value ever previously recorded. 
It will be noted that with the exception of milch 
cows the increase from the bottom to the present 
range of values has taken place in practically one 
decade, and the increase in this decade is so great 
that it would seem almost incredible if it were not 
a matter of statistical record. 



1910 


Increase 


Per ct. 


101.50 


$67.85 


201.6 


108.57 


68.91 


173.7 


35.24 


13.84 


64.7 


20.76 


6.61 


46.7 


9.15 


5.02' 


121.5 


4.07 


2.47 


154.4 



THE LIVE STOCK FIELD 

Changes from Low Point 

r-'LiOyv point-^ 

Year Price 

Horses 1897 $33.65 

Mules 1898 39.66 

Milch cows 1892 21.40 

Other cattle 1895 14.15 

Hogs 1897 4.13 

Sheep 1896 1.60 

Details by States 

In distribution of horses Illinois ranks first, 
closely followed by Iowa and Texas, with Kansas 
fourth, the last state having more than a million 
head. The average value per head of horses shows 
some peculiar conditions. New Jersey, as might 
naturally be expected, on account of its location 
between the great cities of the East, ranks first, 
with an average of $120. The state of Washington 
has a similar average, but Ohio stands first, with 
$118.15, ii^ the states having large numbers of 
horses. In the case of mules Texas leads, with 
Missouri second. As in the case of horses. New 
Jersey leads in value per head. 

The leading dairy states, as shown by the num- 
ber of milch cows, are the New England states. 
New York and Pennsylvania in the East, Illinois, 
Wisconsin, Minnesota and Iowa in the West, with 
Texas having a large number because of the large 
total number of other forms of flesh food animals, 
such as cattle, in the state. The average price is 
highest in New Jersey, with $44, followed closely 
by Illinois, with $42, and Pennsylvania, $38. Ar- 
kansas, with $22.80, shows the lowest price. 

In the case of cattle other than milch cows Texas 
leads, with $7,357,000, or nearly one-seventh of the 
total number in the country. Iowa comes second, 
with about half as many, followed by Kansas and 



8 



PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 



Nebraska. The highest average value is in Illinois, 
with $28.50. 

The accompanying statement shows the total 
number and value of cows and other cattle by 
states: 



Number and Value of Cattle by States January 

I, 1910 

[Last three figures, OOO'i^, omitted.] 





, Milch cows ^ 

No. Per head Value 


, other cattle v 

Xo. Per head Value 


X. E 


1,049 


$38.00 


$39,862 


664 


118.00 


$11,952 


X. Y 


1,837 


35.00 


64,295 


957 


17.00 


16,269 


X. J 


191 


44.00 


8,404 


87 


21.00 


1.827 


Pa 


1,163 


38.00 


44,194 


946 


19.00 


17,974 


Tex 


1.092 


28.20 


30.794 


7,357 


14.00 


102.998 


Ark 


849 


22.80 


7,957 


645 


11.20 


7,224 


Tenn. . . . 


3S2 


30.00 


11.460 


658 


15.90 


10,462 


W. Va. . . 


220 


33.50 


7.370 


539 


21.00 


11,319 


Ky 


402 


32.40 


13.025 


706 


21.10 


14.897 





949 


39.20 


37,201 


1.115 


25.00 


27.875 


Mich 


840 


39.90 


33,516 


979 


21.00 


20,559 


Ind 


669 


39.60 


26,492 


1.083 


26.40 


28.591 


Ill 


1,287 


42.00 


54,054 


2,058 


28.50 


58,653 


Wis 


1.249 


35.25 


44.027 


1,170 


21.20 


24.804 


Minn. . . . 


. 1,065 


34.35 


36.583 


1.200 


20.10 


24,120 


la 


1,668 


36.30 


60,548 


3,622 


24.70 


89.463 


Mo 


878 


34.10 


29,940 


2,165 


23.80 


51,527 


Kan. . . . 


889 


36.25 


32.226 


3.456 


24.10 


83,290 


Xeb 


780 


35.10 


27,375 


3,063 


22.80 


69,836 


N. D 


248 


37.60 


9,325 


732 


24.70 


18,080 


S. D 


632 


33.80 


21.362 


1,433 


24.00 


34,392 


Cal 


423 


36.70 


15,524 


1.222 


20.70 


25,295 


Ore 


182 


42.10 


7,662 


739 


22.10 


16.332 


Wash. . . 


182 


42.00 


7,644 


408 


23.50 


9,588 


Okla. . . . 


229 


33.25 


7.614 


1,300 


20.00 


26.000 


other . . . 


2.666 


30.00 


79,980 


10.476 


20.00 


209,520 



Total.. 21,521 $35.24 $758,434 48,780 $20.76 $1,012,847 

Something more than 60 per cent of the sheep of 
the country are in the Rocky Mountain states and 
on the Pacific coast. Ohio is the only mixed farming 
state making a large showing in numbers, followed 
by Michigan and New York .in the order named. 
New York leads in average value per head again 
on account of its location and accessibility to 
market. Naturally, the heavy hog states are the 
states of the corn belt, Iowa leading, with 6,487,000, 



THE LIVE STOCK FIELD 



9 



followed by Illinois, with 3,646,000. Texas, on ac- 
count of its large geographical area, stands third in 
number, and is rapidly increasing its importance as 
a hog state. 

The following statement shows the number and 
value of sheep and hogs by states : 

Number and Value of Sheep and Hogs by States 
January i, 1910 



[Last three figures, OOO's, omitted.] 





1 


— Sheep - 


> 


f 


Hogs— 






No. Per head 


Value 


No. Per head 


Value 


N. E 


644 


$4.85 


$3,123 


309 


$10.50 


$3,245 


N. Y 


1,173 


5.60 


6,569 


591 


9.50 


5,615 


N. J 


41 


6.00 


246 


157 


11.00 


1,727 


Pa 


1,086 


5.50 


5,973 


934 


9.00 


8,406 


Tex 


1,548 


3.00 


4,644 


3,307 


6.80 


22,488 


Ark 


278 


2.75 


764 


1,074 


5.25 


5,639 


Tenn. . . . 


337 


4.00 


1,348 


1,249 


8.00 


9,992 


W. Va. .. 


693 


5.00 


3,465 


338 


7.20 


2,434 


Ky 


918 


4.50 


4,131 


1,025 


6.20 


6,355 





3,148 


4.80 


15,110 


2,036 


9.50 


19,342 


Mich. . . . 


2,062 


5.20 


10,722 


1,170 


10.50 


12,285 


Ind 


. 1,093 


5.05 


5,520 


2,515 


9.55 


24,018 


Ill 


666 


5.60 


3,730 


3,646 


10.45 


38,101 


Wis 


944 


4.70 


4,437 


1,555 


10.75 


16,716 


Minn. . . . 


386 


3.90 


1,505 


1,034 


10.65 


11,012 


la 


628 


5.60 


3,517 


6,487 


12.00 


77,844 


Mo 


922 


4.70 


4,333 


2,723 


6.90 


18,789 


Kan 


238 


4.60 


1,095 


2,240 


9.50 


21,280 


Neb 


421 


4.40 


1,852 


2,860 


10.00 


28,600 


N. D 


469 


5.00 


2,345 


143 


11.30 


1,616 


S. D 


820 


4.90 


4,018 


705 


11.00 


8,178 


Cal 


2,289 


3.70 


8,469 


424 


8.40 


3,562 


Ore 


. 2,475 


4.20 


10,395 


241 


8.70 


2,097 


Wash. . . 


744 


4.25 


3,162 


132 


9.00 


1,188 


Mont. . . . 


5,696 


3.60 


20,506 









Wyo. . . . 


6,498 


3.90 


25,342 










Col 


. 1,777 


3.60 


6,397 





__ 


, 


N. M 


5,093 


3.50 


17,826 





__ 


, , , 


Utah . . . 


3,222 


3.60 


11,599 





__ 


, , 


Nev 


. 1,658 


3.35 


5,554 


___ 


_^ 




Ida 


. 4,087 


3.70 


15,122 


__ 





^, 


Okla. . . . 


70 


4.00 


280 


431 


8.00 


3,448 


Other . . . 


. 2,602 


3.75 


9,758 


7,640 


7.50 


57,300 



Total.. 54,726 $4.07 $222,857 44,966 $9.15 $411,277 

The statement here printed shows the distribu- 
tion of horses and mules by states : 



10 



PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 



Number and Value of Horses and Mules by States 
January i, 1910 

[Last three figures, OOO's, omitted.] 





No. ] 


Horses 

Per head 


^ 

Value 


No. 


Mules 

Per head 


. 

Value 


N. E . . . 


433 


$115.00 


$49,795 


1 


$120.00 


$ 120 


N. Y . . . 


700 


114.00 


79,800 


4 


130.00 


520 


N. J 


103 


120.00 


12,360 


6 


135.00 


810 


Pa 


636 


115.00 


73,140 


45 


129.00 


5,805 


Tex. . . . 


1,351 


77.00 


104,027 


656 


101.00 


66,256 


Ark. . . . 


281 


90.10 


25,318 


202 


113.10 


22.846 


Tenn 


338 


104.30 


35.253 


280 


116.00 


32,480 


W. Va. . 


193 


98.00 


18,914 


11 


120.00 


1,320 


Ky. . . . 


414 


105.00 


43,470 


196 


114.00 


22.344 





970 


118.15 


114.606 


15 


117.00 


1,755 


Mich. . . 


673 


115.00 


77,395 


3 


118.00 


354 


Ind. . . . 


803 


110.00 


88,330 


83 


116.05 


9,632 


Ill 


1.447 


115.00 


166,405 


139 


120.00 


16,680 


Wis. . . . 


656 


114.00 


74,784 


5 


115.00 


575 


Minn. . . 


772 


109.00 


8-. 148 


9 


110.00 


990 


la 


1,395 


114.00 


159,030 


59 


127.00 


7,493 


Mo 


924 


100.60 


92,954 


333 


116.00 


38,860 


Kan. . . . 


1,066 


103.00 


109.798 


140 


123.20 


17,248 


Neb. . . . 


894 


108.10 


96.641 


70 


121.00 


8,470 


N. D . . . 


595 


102.00 


66.640 


7 


122.00 


854 


S. D.... 


561 


110.00 


61.710 


8 


120.00 


960 


Cal. . . . 


422 


102.00 


43,044 


73 


119.00 


8.687 


Ore. . . . 


289 


108.00 


31,212 


7 


115.00 


805 


Wash. . 


322 


120.00 


38.640 


4 


125.00 


500 


Okla. . . 


443 


88.75 


39,316 


184 


115.40 


21.234 


Other . . 


. 3,531 
20,212 


75.00 


264.825 


1,356 
3,898 


100.00 


135,600 


Total. 


$101.50 


$2,051,555 


$108.57 


$423,198 



From the above it will be seen that the value of 
live stock in the United States at the beginning of 
1910 was enormous. According to B. ^^^. Snow, 
statistician for Orange Jiidd Company publications, 
the stock on American farms was worth on Jan- 
uary I, 1910, $4,880,068,000; the increase during the 
year 1909 amounted to the enormous sum of 
$560,190,000, or the largest annual increase ever 
recorded. 

This upward movement of prices had been in 
progress for more than ten years, so that the im- 
portance, from a money standpoint alone, of the 
live stock industry, is apparent. The value of the 
different kind of farm animals and increase during 
the year 1909 is shown in the table below: 



THE LIVE STOCK FIELD II 

Total Value of Farm Animals 

1910 1909 Increase 

Horses $2,051,555,000 $1,816,074,000 $235,481,000 

Mules 423,198,000 369,997,000 53,201,000 

Milch cows 758,434,000 674,813,000 83,621,000 

Other cattle 1,012,847,000 960,966.000 51,881,000 

Hoffs 411,177,000 310,806,000 100,371,000 

Sheep 222,857,000 187,222,000 35,635,000 

Total 4,880,068.000 $4,319,878,000 $560,190,000 

Average Price Per Head 

1910 1909 Increase Per ct. 

Horses $101.50 $91.0?' $10.48 11.5 

Mules 108.57 97.70 10.87 11.1 

Milch cows 35.24 32.00 3.24 10.1 

Other cattle 20.76 18.95 1.81 9.5 

Hogs 9.15 6.22 2.93 47.1 

Sheep 4.07 3.55 52 14.6 

The problems connected with profitable live stock 
production are becoming more and more complex as 
the years go by. Prof Herbert W. Mumford, w^ho 
has charge of the animal husbandry department at 
the university of Illinois, has probably made as 
careful a study of this proposition as any man in 
the country. He has not only visited the stock- 
growing regions in the United States, but made a 
thorough investigation of the conditions in the 
Argentine. He has attempted to get a broad view 
of the situation and has reached some interesting 
conclusions. He finds that in a country where 
agriculture is new, as in the United States, the 
problems were at first comparatively easy, but as 
time passed they became more complex and more 
difficult. 

Until a permanent system of agriculture has been 
established, brief periods arise when grain farming 
becomes more profitable than live stock produc- 
tion, because temporarily the price of feeds used 
in the production of live stock becomes relatively 
higher than the price of animal products. These 



12 



PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 



high grain prices cause an extension of grain pro- 
duction, pastures are plowed up, farm animals are 
disposed of, and a very material reduction in the 
number of farm animals is the immediate result. 

Further than this, the production of stock is, in 
a new country, associated with cheap land. As the 
land advances in value, it has been the common 
practice to reduce the number of farm animals, the 




ELEVATION OF HORSE BARN 



feeling being that cattle, sheep, hogs and horses 
cannot be profitably raised on high-price land. 

Then an added factor is found by Professor Alum- 
ford to be having its influence. In some sections 
of the United States the tendency is toward tenant 
farming. The original landowners have accu- 
mulated enough money to retire and move to town. 
In securing tenants to replace these original hold- 
ers there is great diflficulty in getting hold of ten- 
ants who care to handle live stock. Some of them 
do not have experience, while others feel that as 
their stay is only temporary at best, it will not pay 
them to stock up with farm animals. The recent 
tendency, however, among farmers, to adopt per- 



THE LIVE STOCK FIELD 



13 



manent forms of agriculture and remain on their 
land will do much to counteract this difficulty. 

WHY LIVE STOCK WILL PAY 

There are many reasons why live stock will con- 
tinue profitable. The multiplicity of kinds and 
methods of live stock production and the variation 



t 



I 

i 
I 
I 

I 

■I 
J 



•^ ^- 


wi m 


M ■ 


M ' ■ 




■f^^ 


m ■ 1 


■I^^B 


" — ^ 




w 


1 


1 


1 


,1' 


J 


JL= 


L^ 




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1 




GROUND PLAN OF HORSE BARN 

in market value both of feeds used and animals 
involved, make it impossible to give a detailed 
statement of just how profitable this will be. Pro- 
fessor Mumford calls attention to a Missouri ex- 
periment where various forage and grain crops were 
consumed by hogs. 

The hogs used in the investigation weighed at 
the beginning about 100 pounds each. The corn, 
where used as a supplement to forage crops, was 
charged against the hogs at 60 cents a bushel ; the 
gains on hogs were credited at $6 per 100 pounds. 
Nothing was charged for labor and no credit given 



14 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

for fertilizer. An acre of blue grass in the season 
of 1909, when pastured with hogs at the rate of 14 
hogs per acre for a period of 140 days, was worth, 
after deducting the value of the corn used to sup- 
plement the pasture, $18.80. An acre of clover 
pastured by 12 hogs 90 days, under similar con- 
ditions yielded $37.59; rape, oats and clover in 
1909, ID hogs for y8 days, $22.02; cowpeas, 12 hogs 
for 32 days, $17.71 ; corn and cowpeas, 10 hogs for 
7,2 days, $35.40. These figures speak for them- 
selves. 

While it is true that at different times and under 
unusual conditions, which have been unfavorable 
for live stock production, grain growing has seemed 
more profitable, this is not true at present, nor will 
it be permanently true until the various grain and 
forage crops fed to stock come into more general 
use in the human dietary. Some of the farm crops, 
such as the various hay crops and coarse grains, 
will never be very generally used for human food, 
consequently they must always be employed in the 
production of live stock. As long as these crops 
are grown in a country, farm animals must be 
raised. 

If, according to popular belief, the increased popu- 
lation eventually forces live stock production out, 
Illinois lands may be used to produce crops suited 
to human food. Under conditions which will pre- 
vail for a great many decades, however, this is not 
likely to occur. Statistics do not prove that as 
population becomes more dense there is neces- 
sarily a decrease in live stock. On this point a lot of 
data collected by Professor Mumford is of par- 
ticular interest. The following tables showing the 
number of the various kinds of live stock, per capita, 
for dates and countries indicated, are illuminating: 



THE LIVE STOCK FIELD 1 5 

Live Stock Per Capita 

GERMANY 

1810 1903 

Horses 0.08 0.08 

Cattle o 0.25 0.36 

Swine 0.15 0.39 

Goats 0.04 0.06 

Sheep 1.22 0.13 

FRANCE 

1852 1908 

Horses, mules and asses., o.io 0.09 

Cows 0.16 0.19 

Swine 0.14 0.18 

Goats 0.03 0.03 

Sheep 0.93 0.44 

DENMARK 

1881 1903 

Horses 0.17 0.19 

Cattle 0.74 0.73 

Swine 0.27 0.57 

Sheep 0.78 0.35 

HOLLAND 

1850 1897 

Horses 0.08 0.06 

Cattle 0.36 0.32 

Swine 0.07 0.23 

Sheep 0.25 0.18 

ITALY 

1852 1890 

Horses 0.03 0.07 

Cattle 0.16 0.17 

Swine 0.08 0.06 

Goats 0.06 0.06 

Sheep 0,29 0.23 



l6 PROFITABLE STOCK ILMSING 

The full significance of these statistics is not ap- 
preciated without the further statement that they 
represent numerical values only. There has been 
a ver)' decided improvement in the quality of live 
stock in the various countries named. A small 
number of animals now with their increased ef- 
ficiency equals a large number in former years. An 
increase in numbers as well as an increase in their 
eflficiency is doubly significant. These statistics 
will also suggest along what lines changes have 
taken place in live stock production as population 
becomes more dense. 

There is a sense in which it is true that the live 
stock per capita decreases. It is in the early his- 
tory- of a countr\' when the population is small and 
extensive systems of live stock production largely 
constitute the agriculture of the country-. In such 
instances population frequently increased more 
rapidly than live stock. When, however, the con- 
ditions demand the establishment of intensive forms 
of agriculture it appears, as in Germany, France, 
Denmark, Holland, Italy and the British Isles, that 
there is a tendency with but few exceptions, for live 
stock per capita to increase rather than decrease. 

I think the above pretty clearly establishes the 
importance of live stock in farm life, and the aver- 
age reader is probably convinced by this time that 
live stock should not be abandoned in the United 
States and that the thing to do is to so handle farm 
animals that the returns will be larger. This can 
be accomplished in a great many ways. In the 
first place, the animals should be so handled as to 
produce the largest amount of stable manure. This 
stable manure should be so taken care of as to give 
the largest possible increase in grain production 
on the farms where made. The use of the manure 



THE LIVE STOCK FIELD 1 7 

Spreader and the application of manure as soon as 
available will all tend toward greater fertility of 
farm lands and will result in larger net profit to the 
agricultural population. If, in connection with all 
these things, the need of more and better animals 
is fully realized, the future of the agriculture of 
America is assured. It does not pay to keep scrub 
animals. They eat Just as much, and in some cases 
more, longer time is required for maturity and lower 
prices must be accepted. Consequently, why not 
get good breeding stock and reap the largest re- 
ward? The profitable live stock are animals that 
are well bred and well fed. 

Some attention must also be given to keeping 
animals in a thrifty, growing condition, from the 
time they are born until disposed of. A little 
neglect at any period will result in a stunted con- 
dition which will require large amounts of feed 
and care to correct — in fact, neglect at any stage of 
the game can never be fully made up, no matter 
how much time and money is spent in trying to 
do it. 

Bear in mind, therefore that the live stock field 
in the United States is comparatively unlimited, 
that there are fortunes in raising live stock in con- 
nection with general farming, for although the day 
of the big stock ranch is past, there is more money 
to be made and distributed among a larger number 
of farmers than ever before ; that the number of 
first-class animals in the United States is not nearly 
as large as it should be ; that for the coming century, 
at any rate, there is no probability of raising live 
stock at a loss, if properly handled, for in connec- 
tion with the raising of live stock, feeds are con- 
sumed at home and permanent fertility of the land 
is maintained. 



CHAPTER II 

Principles of Permanent Agriculture 

The first requisite for a system of permanent 
agriculture is some scientific and practical plan of 
soil management which will permit the removal of 
maximum yearly crops without permanently lower- 
ing the productive capacity of the land. This con- 
dition is one which has never been fully met in any 
except some isolated instances in the United States. 
In fact, it may be said that in only a few countries 
in the entire world has this balance between pro- 
duction and maintenance been so adjusted as to 
make possible a permanent agriculture. In some 
of the oldest countries of the world certain sec- 
tions have been cultivated continuously since the 
most remote times and are still productive. This 
may be due to some special condition such as pre- 
vails in the Nile valley, whereby the spring floods 
bring down an annual fresh supply of rich soil, 
which is deposited upon the surface, or it may be 
due to the general practice of systems of agricul- 
ture which tend toward soil preservation. For the 
most part, however, the history of the oldest agri- 
cultural regions is one of ultimate famine and star- 
vation, because production did not keep pace with 
the demand, and because soils were systematically 
robbed of their power to produce maximum yields. 
The conservation of all possible forms of fertility in 
the soil is found in the practice of Chinese farmers 
of today. Absolutely no scrap of vegetation or of 
any substance containing organic matter which can 

18 



PRINCIPLES OF PERMANENT AGRICULTURE 1 9 

be utilized in the fertilization of land is allowed to 
go to waste in this country, and yet there is 
scarcely a year when many deaths from starvation 
do not occur. 

In the face of this lack of sufficient production 
even for maintaining life in the overcrowded popu- 
lation of the empire, there are stretches of hundreds 
of square miles of territory which all the evidence 
indicates were once inhabited and which now do 
not support any population, or at most only a few 
nomadic herdsmen. These lands have evidently 
been so depleted by unintelligent cropping at some 
remote period that their abandonment became 
necessary. Some method of restoring their lost 
productivity is today called " the problem of 
China," and has never yet been successfully worked 
out. The history of India reports a succession of 
famines in which millions of human beings have 
perished from starvation in a single year. Even at 
the present day there is never a year which does 
not witness thousands of deaths from starvation. 
The farmers of India live in the most pitiable con- 
dition of poverty which is known today. They 
have only enough to eat to maintain life at its 
lowest ebb in the most prosperous years, so that the 
least adverse crop condition brings about absolute 
starvation. On the one time rich cotton land of 
India, the production at present does not exceed 
100 pounds per acre of cotton lint, while wheat and 
other agricultural products yield accordingly. Rus- 
sia, in spite of its enormous extent of agricultural 
land and its normal surplus wheat production, has 
its years of famine as well, and these in times past 
have caused great suffering among the poor of that 
country. 



20 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

SUCCESSFUL CONTINUOUS AGRICULTURE 

Western Europe, as a whole, offers very good 
examples of continued high production upon lands 
that have been cultivated for more than a thousand 
years. The farmers of this region were compelled, 
generations ago, to face the question of soil main- 
tenance, and they have gradually developed sys- 
tems of agriculture which seem to be permanent 
and which, in general, are in accordance with well- 
known principles of agricultural science. The 
United States is the newest of the world's agricul- 
tural regions, yet it, too, has encountered the prob- 
lems arising from depleted soils and the consequent 
lowering of crop production below the limits of 
profitable farming. Even in our new land, which 
was virgin soil when many of the still productive 
European fields had been tilled thousands of years, 
we have our large areas of abandoned land which 
was once highly productive, but which was man- 
aged in an unintelligent manner until the remain- 
ing fertility was no longer sufficient to produce crops 
which would pay for the cost of production. The old 
fields of the south were abandoned because they 
would no longer produce tobacco and cotton in 
sufficient quantities to pay the planter for his labor. 
New England and the north Atlantic states have 
thousands of farms which have been abandoned 
and which were deserted because of decreased pro- 
duction and because of the unlimited amount of 
rich lands in the West. In Maryland and Virginia 
today land can be purchased within 20 miles of the 
national capitol for from $1.50 to $15 per acre, 
which 100 years ago composed the rich tobacco 
plantations of this country, yet these farms were 
deserted, or practically so, because they could no 



PRINCIPLES OF PERMANENT AGRICULTURE 21 

* 

longer be made to pay dividends on a reasonable 
valuation. 

SOIL MAINTENANCE AND MANAGEMENT 

The questions peitaining to soil management and 
soil fertility are the most unsatisfactory to discuss 
of any phase of agricultural science. They offer 
the most complex problems and are influenced by 
the most widely varying factors of any phase of 
agriculture. These questions have occupied the at- 
tention of writers and scientists since the days of 
the Roman republic. The earliest agricultural in- 
vestigators and writers gave especial attention to 
this phase of the science, and various infallible 
formulas have been promulgated to perpetuate 
maximum production. One of the oldest theories 
for the maintenance of maximum production is the 
doctrine of continuous culture advocated by Jethro 
Tull of England. By deep plowing and continuous 
intensive cultivation of the soil this gentleman was 
able to produce large crops, without rotation and 
without the addition of any outside material for a 
considerable number of years, upon the same plot 
of land, and he concluded from this, and widely pub- 
lished the conclusion, that "tillage is manure," and 
that thorough cultivation is all that is needed to 
produce maximum crops indefinitely. 

The fact is as true today as it was then that till- 
age of this sort is an absolutely correct agricultural 
practice, but the idea that this alone suffices to 
maintain fertility was long ago abandoned. With 
the advance of science, it became possible to 
analyze the different soils and to determine accu- 
rately not only the different elements contained 
therein, but to compute exactly in what propor- 



22 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

tions they occur. It also became possible to an- 
alyze the different plants and grains and to deter- 
mine just what elements they contain and in just 
what proportions. It was then reasoned and widely 
announced that by analyzing any given soil, and 
comparing its contents with the amounts of these 
same elements removed by each crop, it could be 
determined exactly how many crops could be grown 
upon any piece of land without the addition of any 
kind of fertilizer. This theory was correct in part, 
for it can be accurately determined exactly how 
much nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash and other 
constituents of plants are contained in any class of 
soil. The percentage of this plant food which is 
actually available for the use of plants and is in 
such mechanical and chemical condition as to be 
used by them, however, cannot be determined by 
the wisest chemist. The influence of various soil 
bacteria, some harmful and others beneficial, is 
knowledge which has been gained during the past 
decade, and it is probable that our knowledge of 
these factors is only rudimentary. 

The rotation of crops has been widely taught as 
offering the solution of the problem of soil fertility. 
Intelligent crop rotations are the rule in the most 
progressive farming districts of the United States 
today, and much larger yields are always obtained 
than where a one-crop system is followed. Where 
a one-crop system is necessary, as has been the 
case in some exclusive grain-growing districts, the 
fallowing of the land every three or four years has 
been thought by many to be a means of restoring 
lost fertility, because the crops secured from these 
fallowed fields are always greater than those planted 
preceding fallowing. Under these conditions, fal- 
lowing is a good practice, and the rotation of crops 



PRINCIPLES OF PERMANENT AGRICULTURE 23 

in the mixed-farming districts is absolutely essen- 
tial to intelligent farm management. Yet none of 
these in itself restores anything to the soil from 
which vast quantities of material have been taken. 
The mere rotation of crops, because it tends to 
larger production, actually wears out the soil faster, 
the large crops thus grown taking away more of 
the available fertility than a small crop would do. 
Rotation in itself tends to exhaust the soil faster 
than would otherwise be done. 

PRINCIPLES OF SOIL MAINTENANCE 

There are certain principles and practices, how- 
ever, which so far have stood the test of time and 
which are now believed to make possible a per- 
manent agriculture, while at the same time produc- 
ing constantly increasing crops annually, and by 
means of which the fertility of most land may not 
only be maintained, but constantly increased. The 
three elements which are most likely to become 
deficient in the soil and which are absolutely neces- 
sary to the growth of the plants are nitrogen, phos- 
phoric acid and potash. Several other elements are 
used in the growth of the plant in small quantities, 
but they usually occur in sufficient amounts in all 
soils, with the exception of calcium, and this can be 
added in the form of land plaster or common lime. 
Most American soils contain sufficient potash to last 
for several hundred years, although occasionally 
there are circumstances which justify the addition 
of this element to the soil. Generally speaking, the 
fertility problem narrows itself down to the main- 
tenance of the supply of nitrogen and phosphorus. 
I Humus is decayed organic matter, the function of 
.which is partly chemical and partly mechanical, 



24 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

This decay forms certain acids, and causes certain 
chemical reactions which serve to render available 
to the use of the plant roots, plant food already 
present. Its mechanical action, by adding bulk to 
the soil, keeps the fine soil particles from running 
together into a close compact mass when w^et, pro- 
vides air and water spaces, and enables the farmer 
to keep the soil in a condition of good tilth. 

SYSTEMS OF SOIL MANAGEMENT 

A system of soil management which seems to 
make for a permanent agriculture has been widely 
exploited in recent years by means of which grain 
farming alone can be continuously followed. This 
system demands the growth of leguminous crops 
and the plowing under of large quantities of legu- 
minous vegetation in order to supply the nitrogen 
and the necessary humus, while the application of 
ground phosphate rock, steamed ground bone or 
phosphorus in some of its various available forms 
are depended upon to supply the phosphorous con- 
tent. Lime can be added as needed to correct the acid 
condition of the soil and maximum crops of grain 
and hay can be produced apparently indefinitely. 
This plan has its adherents, and where it is clearly 
an advantage to pursue this type of farming the 
plan cannot be intelligently criticized. The other 
system of soil maintenance demands the keeping of 
live stock to the extent of the farm's capacity, the 
marketing, through the medium of fattened stock, of 
most of the grain and hay grown upon the land and 
the return to the soil of all the manure made by the 
live stock. 

At all periods of agricultural history, no matter 
what new theories or fads have been advanced or 



PRINCIPLES OF PERMANENT AGRICULTURE 2$ 

advised for maintaining soil fertility, there has been 
a definite and well-established connection between 
live stock and soil maintenance. Dr. E. H. Jenkins 
of the Connecticut experiment station, after having 
spent a lifetime in the investigation of soil problems 
and fertilizers, said that the only recommendation he 
could make, with confidence, was that barnyard 
manure is good to put upon land. While it is not to 
be argued that a permanent agriculture is not pos- 
sible without live stock, it is true that much of the 
best agriculture of western Europe includes the 
keeping of a large number of animals, and it is 
equally true that some of the most poverty-stricken 
countries in the world, with the poorest types of 
agriculture, keep relatively few farm animals. Rus- 
sia, with all her vast agricultural domain, has very 
few meat or milk-producing animals and her agri- 
culture today does not include, to any particular 
extent, the application of manure to the land. All 
of her agricultural poverty cannot be attributed to 
this fact, for the plowing is poorly done with very 
crude implements, but her wheat yield of only 
8^ bushels per acre can in a large part be at- 
tributed to this lack of live stock or of anything to 
take its place in maintaining fertility. Fallowing 
is practiced, but it alone has not been found suf- 
ficient. Although the agriculture of India includes 
the keeping of large numbers of animals, there is 
little or no relation between this live stock and the 
soil, for the reason that the people are driven in 
their poverty to using the dried manure of the 
animals for fuel, and, therefore, little or none of it 
is ever returned to the soil. 

The abandoned lands of the United States all lie 
in regions where stock raising either never was a 
dominating feature or where the value of manure 



26 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

was not recognized, and the stock industry was 
allowed to decline along with the crop production. 
Every instance of the building up of these worn- 
out soils has included either the keeping of increas- 
ing numbers of live stock and the growth of legu- 
minous plants, or the heavy use of commercial 
fertilizers purchased at a relatively high rate in the 
market. The time has come when the American 
farmer must choose some definite system by which 
he can procure larger crops than he is doing at 
present and at the same time return to the soil 
plant food which will tend to continually increase 
the productive capacity of the soil, so that future 
generations will receive the land not in a depleted 
condition, but capable of producing more and more 
in order to keep pace with the growing demands 
of the nation for agricultural products. 

LIVE STOCK SUPPLY 

Under certain conditions, it may be true that a 
system of exclusive grain farming is necessary and 
is best suited to the surroundings, but on the large 
majority of the American farms today, there is a 
larger field for live stock and the type of farming 
which its keeping implies than there has been at any 
previous time in our history. There is a greater de- 
mand today for meat, for dairy products, for wool 
and for work animals than there ever was before. 
Population is increasing much more rapidly than 
our agricultural production, and farm products of 
all kinds will undoubtedly be in constantly stronger 
demand. The extremely high prices realized in 
recent years for all classes of meat-producing 
animals is caused by a marked shortage in the supply 
of these animals in the United States. The supply 



PRINCIPLES OF PERMANENT AGRICULTURE 



27 



of beef cattle has not increased since 1900, and at 
times has shown an absolute decline of at least 
2,000,000 head over the number held in 1900. The 
same is true of sheep, while the supply of hogs has 
fluctuated from about the number held in 1900 to 
several millions less than that. All of this is in the 
face of a 20 per cent increase in the country's popu- 
lation and its consequent consuming capacity. The 
time was never more opportune for the extension 
of the live stock industry than at present, and the 




A NORTHWESTERN FARM GRANARY 



absolute necessity exists for an immediate tremen- 
dous increase of the number of farm animals in this 
country. This demand comes from the crying need 
of the soil for the manure produced from live stock 
farming on the one hand and from the insistent 
demands of the market for more and more animals 
on the other hand. It should not be argued that 
all farms should become exclusively producers of 
live stock, and it is worse than idle to suggest that 



28 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

no grain should be marketed from American farms. 
The acreage devoted to the growing of grain for 
the market can never be less than it is at present, 
and must almost inevitably become greater because 
of the grov^ing yearly demand for wheat, but keen 
discrimination should be used in choosing those 
locations which are best suited to grain production. 
Live stock farming should not be abandoned in 
favor of exclusive grain farming under conditions 
where it can be proved even equally as profitable. 
These differences in the types of farming must be 
worked out on each individual farm and not on an 
extensive scale for any given locality. 

SINGLE SYSTEM BAD POLICY 

No state can afford to rest her future upon any 
single system of farming. There are several types 
of live stock husbandry which are more profit- 
able than grain farming, which make not only for 
a permanent agriculture, but for a higher type of 
country life and a more enduring civilization. There 
are several factors aside from the actual returns per 
acre in dollars and cents which should be consid- 
ered in determining the relative merits of live stock 
and grain farming. It is reasonably certain that 
the best type of agriculture and the highest ideals 
of country life are not possible without the keeping 
of farm animals. The development of a more in- 
telligent citizenship will rest very largely upon the 
possibility of high standards of living among coun- 
try people. The strongest personal factor which 
has entered into the history of American agricul- 
ture has been the tendency of the ablest and most 
intelligent country boys to forsake the farm for 
city life and the professions at the earliest oppor- 



PRINCIPLES OF PERMANENT AGRICULTURE 29 

tunity. This tendency is being overcome in a con- 
siderable measure at present, but its ultimate 
solution demands a type of agriculture which 
will require a high degree of intelligence and 
will necessitate the exercising of mental and 
executive ability equal to that demanded by the 
best professional work. American agriculture may 
well heed the example of English husbandry in this 
respect. British and American farming will always 
differ, in that in England farming is essentially an 
occupation of the aristocracy, while American agri- 
culture depends for its development upon the small 
landowner. The feature which it is desirable for 
American agriculture to adopt from the English is 
the tendency of transmitting not only the land, but 
the farming practices and experiences of one 
generation to each succeeding generation, so 
that one definite system may be followed 
out in all its details through many generations in 
the same family. The development of some of the 
famous breeds and families of cattle has been 
brought about by this English custom of training 
the son to continue the father's work. Agriculture 
of this type has never been developed under any 
condition which does not include a large proportion 
of live stock husbandry. On the other hand, sys- 
tems of exclusive grain farming have always tended 
toward a relatively low plane of country life, and in 
the last analysis, toward peasant farming. 

CONSIDERATIONS OF FARM LABOR 

The farm labor question is one of the most seri- 
ous which now confronts the American farmer. 
One needs to look no further for evidence of this 
problem than the cry which goes up annually from 



30 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

the great wheat section of the United States for 
thousands of harvest hands. This extra supply of 
help, which is needed for only a short period of the 
year, is not available in the ^^rain regions, and must 
always be imported from far-away cities and com- 
munities having a surplus of labor. There is an 
annual exodus of tens of thousands of men from 
the centers of population into the grain sections at 
harvest time and back again upon the approach of 
cold weather, wdien the demand for their services 
suddenly ceases. This tends to create an itinerant 
class of farm laborers, and is undoubtedly a prolific 
source of the class of American society known as 
the hobo. Live stock farming, on the contrary, 
furnishes the opportunity for the continuous re- 
munerative employment for large numbers of in- 
telligent laborers throughout the entire year. It 
tends to equalize the labor supply in such a way 
that the farmer will usually have a sufificient num- 
ber of men at his command during the extremely 
busy seasons of the year, because he has work 
enough to give employment during the slack sea- 
son also. The keeping of live stock in connection 
with general farming thus make both for the welfare 
of the farmer and the laborer. 

The establishment of particular systems of live 
stock farming which do not suit the times or con- 
ditions is not to be advocated. Some forms of 
stock production should be and undoubtedly will 
be abandoned. Others should be largely extended 
and developed. By the intelligent rotation of 
crops, in connection with live stock farming which 
returns to the soil the largest possible amount of 
fertility and organic material, the producing 
capacity of the American farm must be made to 
continually increase. These larger crops, in return, 



PRINCIPLES OF PERMANENT AGRICULTURE 3I 

will support greater numbers of live stock, and the 
process of building up the producing power of the 
land on the one hand and increasing the efficiency 
of farm animals by careful selection and breeding 
on the other, will tend toward a profitable and per- 
manent live stock industry in America. It is prob- 
ably true that occasionally plant food in some form 
will have to be purchased from the outside, because 
the fertility of the farm cannot be maintained sim- 
ply by returning to the land the manure made by 
live stock fed upon crops grown upon the land. It 
is equally true, however, that most systems of live 
stock farming demand the purchase of vastly less 
plant food than is required by any system of grain 
farming. Raise good crops, but use them for mak- 
ing better stock. Then the transfer of plant food 
will be small and the profits from the farm be more 
satisfactory, more profitable, more uplifting, and 
the land will give out its fat with readiness and 
with unheard of liberality. 



CHAPTER III 

Ag^cultural Situation in the East 

A\'ith the advent of the white man in America, 
farming- was confined to the land along the At- 
lantic coast, from Florida to Maine, inclusive. The 
soil was fertile and responded readily to cultivation. 
There seemed to be little necessity for giving any 
particular attention to the maintenance of soil fer- 
tility. As soon as a field became nonproductive it 
was abandoned and new land further west was 
taken up. This continued as population increased. 
The younger generation crossed the Allegheny 
mountains and settled in the fertile Ohio valleys. 
The migration continued westward, until now al- 
most all of the available lands in the United States 
are occupied. The bringing of new territor}^ under 
cultivation maintained the general averacre produc- 
tion of the country, so that until recently it was 
difficult to realize that the older soils were decreas- 
ing very rapidly in fertility. In fact, today, if 
statistics alone are relied upon, it would be diflficult 
to convince anyone that soils are wearing out. The 
taking up of new land, the improvement of seed 
and the fact that cultivation is more thoroughly 
understood, has resulted in larger yields per acre 
for all the leading crops than ever before noted in 
the history of the country. Of course, in the older 
settled sections of Xew England and all along the 
Atlantic coast, it is perfectly evident that the soil 
is not as productive as it was formerly, but taking 
the country as a whole, this depletion could not be 
proved. 

It has become evident, however, that the farms of 

32 



AGRICULTURAL SITUATION IN THE EAST 33 

New England, New York, New Jersey and the South 
are more or less unproductive. This, as stated be- 
fore, has been brought about by a disregard of 
some of the primary principles of soil treatment. 
As the demand for land has become greater, atten- 
tion is being given to the worn-out farms in the 
East, and it is gratifying to note that, intelligently 
handled, these farms are once more becoming very 
productive. The tide is being turned and many 
farmers are going East, buying abandoned farms 
and renovating them. That these soils under proper 
treatment can be made productive has been so 
fully demonstrated that there can be no argument 
on that point. In Maine, Massachusetts, Connecti- 
cut, New York and Pennsylvania there are today 
farms which are as productive as any on the face 
of the earth. Originally, they were no more fertile 
than thousands now considered unprofitable. The 
owners, however, have studied the problem thor- 
oughly, have applied business methods, have used 
the latest discoveries of science and practice, have 
treated the soils so that they not only are in better 
tilth, but produce crops that are record breakers. 
It will be recalled that in 1908 a Connecticut farmer 
was awarded the champion prize for the largest 
yield of corn in the United States from an acre. 
The tobacco fields of Connecticut and Massa- 
chusetts are noted for their productivity. The po- 
tato fields of Maine have, for years, been a source 
of great profit. In Pennsylvania at least one grain 
farmer is producing annual yields ranging around 
100 bushels per acre. The truck lands of New 
Jersey are very productive. Georgia has several 
exceedingly productive and profitable peach or- 
chards. Thus it happens that many farmers are 
looking to the East for permanent homes. 



34 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

The location of land adjacent to the Atlantic 
ocean is especially desirable because of the prox- 
imity to great market centers like New York, Bos- 
ton, Philadelphia, Atlanta and Jacksonville. 

SOIL MOISTURE MEASURES PRODUCTION 

The productive capacity of the soil is measured 
largely by its water-holding capacity. True, every 
soil must contain a certain amount of plant food, 
but if it does not have the capacity to absorb and 
retain moisture so that this will be available during 
the period of plant development, it cannot be highly 
profitable. The treatment, therefore, of these 
abandoned soils should be such as to increase their 
water-holding capacity. 

The quickest and best way to increase this water- 
holding capacity is to fill the land with humus. 
This is secured primarily in two ways. First, by 
growing leguminous crops, such as cowpeas, 
clovers, vetch, etc., and turning these under. If, 
allied with this growing of leguminous crops, live 
stock farming is practiced, it will not be many 
years before the Atlantic coast states will be in- 
finitely more productive, from an agricultural 
standpoint, than at present. While it may not be 
entirely profitable to raise beef cattle, the locality 
is especially suited to dairying, to the raising of 
poultry, and to the raising of hogs in connection 
with dairying. The market for dairy products is 
almost unlimited and the prices are the best. The 
comparatively short distance from the producer to 
the consumer eliminates the matter of expensive 
freight and express rates. Consequently, it is a 
source of great encouragement to know that the 
so-called unproductive farms of the East may be 



AGRICULTURAL SITUATION IN THE EAST 35 

rendered very profitable by the raising of live stock 
and the growing of leguminous crops. These crops 
may either be turned under or may be fed to the 
farm stock. The latter procedure, of course, is the 
logical and common-sense one. The judicious ap- 
plication of a certain amount of commercial fer- 
tilizer will also assist. 

The great importance of soil moisture can be no 
better illustrated than to remember that in order 
to produce a ton of dry hay on an acre of land it is 
necessary that the grass have approximately 500 
tons of water. In order to supply this enormous 
quantity, the soil must not only be in condition to 
absorb and hold water well, but it must be porous 
enough to permit water to flow freely from one soil 
grain to another. The presence of large quantities 
of decaying organic matter, ordinarily termed 
humus, adds enormously to the water-holding 
capacity of the soil. One ton of humus will absorb 
two tons of water and give it up readily to grow- 
ing crops. The shrinkage of the particles of de- 
caying organic matter and the consequent loosen- 
ing of soil grains keeps the soil open and porous. 

Above and beyond all this, humus of good qual- 
ity is exceedingly rich, both in nitrogen and in 
mineral plant food. The first step, therefore, to 
renovating worn-out soil is to give it an abundant 
supply of humus. Perhaps the best source of 
humus is stable manure, especially when animals 
are fed foods rich in nitrogen. Even poor barn- 
yard manure has considerable value because of the 
humus it contains. 

TILLAGE OF THE UTMOST IMPORTANCE 

Careful tillage is another problem which must 
enter into the renovation of worn-out soil. In 



36 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

many parts of the country the land is plowed only 
three or four inches deep. Below the plow the soil 
becomes sour, densely packed and unfit for plant 
roots. When such soils are plowed deeply and 
this sour subsoil is mixed with the upper portion, 
the first efiFect is to retard plant growth. This, 
however, must not be placed against deep plowing. 
A better method is to plow a little deeper each year 
until the land is annually stirred to a depth of eight 
or ten inches. This gives a deep layer well adapted 
to supporting plant life. When new land, that is, 
land which has been undisturbed for a number of 
years, is broken up it is always best to plow deep 
from the beginning. It is never wise to plow the 
same depth twice in succession. In general, fall 
plowing should be eight, nine or ten inches deep 
and spring plowing five to seven inches. Do not 
forget that there are special cases when this rule 
does not apply. Ground may be plowed shallower 
or even deeper to get best results. The object of 
plowing is to loosen the soil, get the air into it, 
turn under manure, etc. It is also the prime factor 
in the killing of weeds. 

All soils except those quite sandy are injured if 
handled when wet. Nothing is more destructive 
or disastrous to a clay soil than treating it when 
it contains an excess of moisture. This must be 
looking after in all parts of the Eastern country 
where the subsoil is clay. Of course, some sections 
are sandy and this matter can be disregarded more 
or less. The best time to plow is when the land 
contains just enough moisture so that it will break 
up mellow. Of course, if continuous rains follow 
plowing little harm is done, but if wet land is 
turned up during a dry, sunny period the produc- 
tive capacity will be greatly decreased. 



AGRICULTURAL SITUATION IN THE EAST 37 

After the plowing is thoroughly done the next 
important thing that the Eastern farmer must look 
out for, as noted before, is supplying the humus. 
]\Iake all the stable manure you can, and to do this 
you must keep all the stock that you possibly can. 
Preserve your stable manure so it will be well 
rotted before it is applied. Do not let it stand out 
in the open where rains will leach out the soluble 
elements. An intelligent rotation of crops must be 
practiced even where manure is abundant and 
where leguminous crops are grown freely. If the 
land is seeded to timothy or clover and allowed to 
remain for two or three years, the upper layers will 
become well filled with plant roots so that when 
the sod is finally broken the soil will be in fine 
condition. If alfalfa is grown, and it can be in 
many parts of the Eastern section, nothing is better 
for renovating a soil. Its roots are long and pene- 
trate to a great depth. It furnishes a forage that 
is a first-class dairy feed and also is excellent for 
raising hogs and feeding to poultry. 

GREEN AND BARNYARD MANURES 

The practice of plowing under green manures is 
not very general and probably never will be along 
the Atlantic coast, but it can be used to advantage 
in some cases. The chief objection, however, in 
this country is that the green crop when plowed 
under is apt to ferment and produce an acid in the 
soil. It is generally desirable toplow the green crop 
under and then seed the land to some winter crop. 
In New Jersey and Georgia crimson clover is used 
to good advantage. This particular clover stores 
up large amounts of nitrogen. It should be sown 
in July in the North and in September in the South. 



38 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

Sometimes it fails, because the soil is not in- 
oculated with the proper bacteria. Inoculated soil 
may be applied and this defect corrected. This 
crop also furnishes valuable winter pasturage for 
dairy cows and for hogs throughout the Southern 
territory. In Maryland, and in some other states, 
the practice of sowing crimson clover seed in corn 
just before the last plowing has given excellent re- 
sults. In the spring the clover is plowed under 
and another crop of corn planted. Yields of corn 
have been increased from 35 to 50 bushels per acre 
in ten years by this practice. Vetches also do well, 
particularly in the South. Rye is a good crop to use 
in renovating soils, and it will grow on poor land, 
will make a good winter and spring pasture and 
can also be used as a soiling crop. It adds con- 
siderable humus to the soil, but does not, however, 
add nitrogen as do the legumes. 

Possibly the best way to build up a worn-out soil 
where large quantities of barnyard manure are not 
available is to not only grow forage crops but buy 
grain to feed with them and return all the manure 
to the land. This, of course, cannot be done unless 
live stock farming is practiced. Dairying probably 
is the best system that can be practiced in the East. 
In this connection, of course, poultry and hogs can 
be raised with profit. Another form is to grow a 
succession of pasture crops for hogs. Keep the 
hogs on these pastures and feed them a light grain 
ration. Where corn can be grown, and it does 
grow well along the Atlantic coast if properly 
treated, plant enough for the pigs and for the dairy 
cattle. Sow either cowpeas, crimson clover or rye 
in the corn land each year. The two latter furnish 
winter pasture for pigs and result in increased 
yields from year to year. Sow oats in early spring, 



AGRICULTURAL SITUATION IN THE EAST 39 

follow with rye sown in August and follow this 
with sorghum the following spring. In September 
sow this sorghum field to rye again and the next 
spring sow either sorghum or cowpeas. A four- 
year rotation may be established by raising po- 
tatoes one year. If these crops are all utilized and 
if the hogs and cattle are fed a little grain in the 
meantime, this soil will improve. Of course, where 
the land is clay it must not be pastured when wet. 
This system of farming takes practically nothing 
from the land, but does add a great deal to it. 

The Department of Agriculture, after carefully 
studying all phases of the soil fertility problem in 
the older section of the United States, concludes 
that the problem is not so much one of plant food 
as it is of soil treatment. Consequently, while it 
may be desirable to occasionally add plant food, 
the chief thought should be given to the supplying 
of the soil with humus and to so treating the land 
that it will be in the best possible mechanical con- 
dition. The department reaches the conclusion 
that the results of its investigation seem to indicate 
that the actual amount of water a soil can furnish 
the plant, irrespective of the percentage of water 
actually present in the soil, has a very important 
influence on yield. W^hen the supply of water is 
inadequate to the need of the plant it is impossible 
for the nutritive solutions to be transferred to the 
roots. If water be not abundant, no matter how 
rich the soil may be in plant food, large yields can- 
not be secured. 

Summing up the whole situation in New Eng- 
land and the Atlantic coast states, the success of 
agriculture in that region will be measured by the 
extent to which the raising of live stock is practiced, 
the attention given to the increasing of humus 



40 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

in the soil and the care with which the soils are 
cultivated. There is no reason why the so-called 
abandoned or unproductive farms of New England 
and the old middle states may not eventually be 
made even more profitable than the farms in the 
great central West where the soil was originally 
much richer. 



CHAPTER IV 

Southern Agriculture Needs Farm Animals 

THE ONE-CROP IDEA 

For years the Southern farmer has realized that 
something- is wrong with the agriculture of his sec- 
tion. The trouble began a good many years ago 
along the Atlantic seaboard when the soil which 
had been brought under cultivation by the early 
settlers of that region began to yield smaller re- 
turns of cotton and tobacco each year, until the 
crop harvested from the land would scarcely pay 
for the labor and expense necessary to produce the 
crop. Later, a similar discontent arose in the 
enormous southern empire which stretches away 
to the west, and extends practically to the Rio 
Grande river. In part of this region, the trouble 
came also from soil depletion, with its attendant 
necessity for abandoning the old fields and bring- 
ing new lands into cultivation ; in other parts, it 
came from the inroads of crop pests, notably the 
boll weevil, in its destructive attack upon the 
cotton crop. Whatever was the specific agency 
which brought about unprofitable agricultural con- 
ditions, the trouble has always been traceable to 
the big underlying principle of southern agricul- 
ture, namely, the one-crop system. Ever since the 
days of the civil war, the South has staked its agri- 
cultural welfare upon a single-crop basis. In some 
sections this crop has been cotton, in others to- 
bacco, and in still others rice or sugar cane, but the 
principle has been the same — that of expending 

41 



42 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

tlie entire energy in the production of one thing, 
and depending upon the open markets for the pur- 
chase of everything else. 

This one-crop system was developed principally 
by the effects of the civil war and the stern necessity 
which the South faced in 1865 for establishing at 
once some form of industry which would afford 
living conditions to the thousands of people whose 
property had been devastated by the four years of 
warfare. Previous to that time, southern agricul- 
ture had been devoted in considerable measure to 
the production of various kinds of crops. In the 
early colonial days, land was about the cheapest 
imaginable commodity, while labor was the scarcest 
and most expensive. Crops grew with little or no 
trouble to the farmer on the rich virgin land, but 
the main question was how to get these crops cul- 
tivated and harvested. This imperative necessity 
for labor developed slavery in the South while with- 
drawing it from the North, and firmly fastened this 
institution upon the southern planters. The num- 
ber of negroes increased very rapidly, mAich faster 
in proportion than the southern landowners, so 
that in the course of years the planters found them- 
selves with a surplus of labor, more than they 
needed for the lands under cultivation. If their 
fields showed any signs of decreasing fertility, as 
many of them began to do at this time, the simplest 
and easiest remedy was to move on to new uncul- 
tivated lands, using slave labor in clearing away 
the timber and thus subduing rich new areas of 
fertile soil, and continuing the production of large 
crops. It was upon this kind of a basis that the 
settlement of Georgia, Mississippi, Arkansas, Louis- 
iana and Texas was accomplished. The very nature 
of the times and conditions required that these 



SOUTHERN AGRICULTURE NEEDS FARM ANIMALS 43 

planters should produce nearly everything that 
they and their slaves required, because they were 
generally far removed from centers of population, 
railroads had not been built, and there was little 
or no opportunity for extensive importation of food- 
stuffs and feed for their live stock. Every well- 
managed plantation was a principality of its own 
where everything the inhabitants ate, drank or 
wore was produced. The slaves even made shoes 
and hats. If a planter desired to build a house, he 
manufactured his own brick, and the construction 
was done by his slaves, under his supervision. 

The war put an end to this independent condi- 
tion for all time and drove the southern farmers to 
a one-crop basis, at the same time developing a 
credit system which has effectually succeeded ever 
since in keeping the South upon this one-crop foun- 
dation. For 40 years the southern planter has pur- 
chased from the North and West nearly all his 
corn, which he could easily produce at one-quarter 
the cost. He has purchased all his flour at $6 per 
barrel which he could produce upon his own land 
for $2 ; all his meat at 10 cents a pound, which he 
could raise for 2 or 3 cents, and nearly all of the 
thousands of mules necessary to his operations 
have been brought from the North at $200 a head, 
when he could just as well have raised them for $75. 

The one-crop idea has been responsible for all 
this purchase of the necessaries of life, while at the 
same time everything the southern farmers pro- 
duced was shipped away in the form of tobacco, or 
cotton to the mills and factories of the North and 
of Europe. In all these 40 years the southern 
farmer, as a class, has annually shipped away 
thousands of tons of the raw material produced 
upon his land and has returned little or nothing 



44 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

to the soil, except varying amounts of commercial 
fertilizer which in recent years he has been com- 
pelled to use in order to produce a crop. It is a 
mathematical certainty that continued subtraction 
from a definite amount will, in time, exhaust the 
original amount. This is the plan on which the 
southern farmer has worked. After all, or nearly 
all, of the virgin land had been brought under cul- 
tivation, he had only a stated amount of soil fer- 
tility. Every year for 40 years he has withdrawn 
from this stated amount all he was able to with- 
draw in the form of heavy crops, with the result 
that the original amount of fertility has been very 
materially decreased throughout the entire South, 
and, in thousands of instances, has been so nearly 
exhausted that farming is no longer profitable. 
There may have been here and there, in individual 
instances, notable exceptions to this statement, but 
broadly speaking of the South as a whole, this is 
an accurate statement of the situation up to within 
very recent years. 

READJUSTMENT TAKING PLACE 

A few years ago, however, signs of a readjust- 
ment of southern farm practice became evident in 
various sections. In some instances this was the 
result of the depleted soil which had been continu- 
ously farmed until the fertility it contained had 
become low and from which the humus had been 
long ago removed, so that the soil was lifeless and 
no longer responded in paying proportions to the 
use of commercial fertilizers. In the far Southwest 
and in the rich black lands of the Louisiana delta, 
where the original fertility of the soil had not yet 
been exhausted, this demand for the changed prac- 



SOUTHERN AGRICULTURE NEEDS FARM ANIMALS 45 

tice resulted from the inroads of the cotton boll- 
weevil, against which no method of combat was 
known, except by changing the crop. Whatever the 
cause, it has developed in the minds of the leaders 
in southern agriculture the idea that the basic 
trouble lies in the one-crop system and the realiza- 
tion that the remedy for the South's agricultural 
ills is the establishment of a diversified system of 
farming, which shall include the extensive grow- 
ing of leguminous crops, the feeding of large num- 
bers of farm animals, and the return to the soil of 
the plant food and humus this produces, for build- 
ing up the soil to its original condition of pro- 
ductiveness. 

A few years ago when the soil of a sloping field 
had been so robbed of its humus that the heavy 
rains began to wash enormous gullies through the 
hillsides and carry away into the streams all the top 
soil which the system of soil robbing had left, the 
remedy was to build terraces at intervals at right 
angles to the slope in order to arrest this removal 
of the soil by floods. The new Southern agricul- 
ture of today knows that the real remedy for this 
condition lies in planting that sloping field to clover 
or alfalfa or cowpeas or some other of the many 
rank growing forage crops which readily grow in 
such abundance throughout the whole South. The 
heavy vegetation thus produced effectually stops 
the action of flood waters. The busy soil microbes, 
working at the roots of the legumes, collect great 
stores of nitrogen from the air and add it to the 
soil's producing power, and when after a few years 
the farmer plows under this heavy growth, it adds 
great stores of humus, and marks a long step in 
bringing the field back to its original rich condi- 
tion. 



46 



PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 



Meanwhile, he has pastured cattle, sheep or hogs 
throughout the year, winter as well as summer, 
upon his field, and has realized from them a greater 
profit than the field originally brought him when 
he applied commercial fertilizer and planted tobacco 
or cotton. The new South is realizing more and 
more the fact that it needs more good home-raised 
farm animals. Not only does it need greater num- 




SELF-FEEDER FOR A MISSOURI FARM 



bers, but it needs higher quality and increased ef- 
ficiency in every class of domestic animals. The 
day has gone in the South as w^ell as in other sec- 
tions of the country when horses of no particular 
type or breeding are profitable to raise, when a 
steer which must be kept until it is four or five 
years old to be brought to marketable condition 
is a paying proposition, or when the razor-back type 
of hog can be profitably produced even in Southern 
canebrakes. 



SOUTHERN AGRICULTURE NEEDS FARM ANIMALS 47 

TOTAL PRODUCTION WILL INCREASE 

In order to produce these diversified crops and to 
increase materially the number of farm animals 
raised, it should not be assumed that the output of 
cotton and tobacco need be decreased. On the other 
hand, it should constantly grow larger. The South can 
add enormously to its cotton crop without bringing 
into cultivation a single additional acre, and at the 
same time reduce the cost of production. It must 
do this by increasing the efficiency of each farm 
unit. The most accurate available figures appear- 
ing upon this subject are those furnished by the 
United States Department of Agriculture. These 
figures show that in 1900 Georgia, Mississippi and 
Iowa had approximately each the same number of 
farm families. The value of the farm products 
grown by these farm families in Georgia was $104,- 
000,000, in Mississippi $102,000,000 and in Iowa 
$365,000,000. In other words, each farm family in 
Iowa produced nearly four times as much wealth 
as the family in Mississippi or Georgia. In pro- 
ducing these crops, Georgia spent $5,700,000 for 
commercial fertilizer, Mississippi spent $932,000, 
while Iowa spent but $337,190. In other words, 
while Iowa produced four times the farm wealth 
that Georgia produced, Georgia spent 60 times as 
much to raise each dollar's worth of produce as 
Iowa did. The significance of these figures is fur- 
ther illustrated when it is stated that, while Georgia 
owns but $33,000,000 worth of live stock, Iowa has 
$272,000,000 worth. These figures in themselves, 
without further comment, should serve to point 
to the Southern farmer the way out of his agricul- 
tural wilderness. In all the history of agriculture 
the connection between maximum crops and a high 



48 TROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

degree of soil fertility, on the one hand, and the keep- 
ing of farm animals and the return to the soil of the 
manure produced by them, on the other, has always 
been apparent, and nowhere is it more forcibly il- 
lustrated than in an examination of agriculture in 
the South. The Iowa farmer returns to his soil 
the fertility produced by his live stock. The South- 
ern farmer ships all this plant food away. That is 
the whole story. 

In every section where it has become necessary, 
for any reason, to change the established system of 
agriculture, there have always been apologists for 
the old order of things, who have advanced 
local conditions as excuses for continuing the 
pernicious system of farm practice. The South 
has been unfortunately afflicted with its apologists 
of this nature. It has been argued that the South 
is not primarily adapted to live stock producing, 
that it hasn't the feeding nor the marketing facil- 
ities and that its climate is not suitable. All these 
excuses have in turn been proved fallacious. The 
most discouraging hindrance to southern cattle 
growing, until very recent years, has been the in- 
roads which Texas fever has made on native south- 
ern cattle. This disease, however, is now thor- 
oughly under control, and its absolute eradication 
is but a matter of a few years at the mos<^ 
Any southern farmer can, with a minimum of ex- 
pense and labor, rid his herd of Texas fever and 
keep it free indefinitely. This disease is no longer 
necessarily a hindrance to cattle growing. The entire 
South- has a climate in which it is rarely neces- 
sary to protect cattle in winter. There is abundance 
of forage and plenty of water. The southern cattle 
grower has none of the severe drawbacks with 
which the northwestern ranchman has to contend. 



SOUTHERN AGRICULTURE NEEDS FARM ANIMALS 49 

The forage which grows wild, in the old field and 
waste lands of the South, and annually goes to 
waste there, would protect the cattle of the entire 
western ranges from winter starvation, which so 
frequently faces them now. For concentrated 
feeds and grain, the natural advantages of the South 
excel those of the best feeding districts in the north- 
ern Mississippi valley. The South, in spite of its 
record of only 14 to 16 bushels of corn per acre as 
an average, holds also the record for some of the 
highest acre yields ever produced in the world. The 
reason that the South buys corn from the North is 
not because of the inability of the southern soil 
and climate to produce this crop in tremendous 
quantities, but because of the absolute indifference 
and bad agricultural practice of the southern 
farmers. 

SOUTHERN FEEDS AND FORAGES 

There are millions of tons of cottonseed an- 
nually produced. Thirty years ago this by-product 
of cotton raising was considered a nuisance, and 
one of the problems of cotton gin owners was how 
to dispose of it. It was customary at that time to 
set fire to the large heaps which accumulated near 
the cotton gin and get rid of it in this manner. 
Finally someone began to use the half-decayed 
material from these cottonseed heaps for fertilizer, 
and found that it had considerable value for this 
purpose. Later it was found that the oil which 
could be extracted from cottonseed had many com- 
mercial uses, while the material left after pressing 
out the oil was eaten with great relish by live stock, 
and thus instead of being a waste product, cotton- 
seed had come to have a definite recognized value as 



50 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

a live stock food. It has steadily advanced in value 
from $3 to $5 a ton up through a steadily increas- 
ing scale until it has reached at times as high as 
$30 per ton. In 1909 the cottonseed crop of the 
South was valued at over $150,000,000. The oil 
meal cake made from cottonseed is one of the best 
meat and milk-producing feeds known. Yet most 
of this enormous amount is now shipped North 
or to Europe and fed there, its ultimate fertilizing 
value being lost to the southern fields and gained 
by the land upon which the feeding is done. 

At the same time that thousands of tons of valu- 
able forage are being allowed to waste, and that 
these millions of dollars worth of rich, concen- 
trated feed are being shipped from the South, the 
packing houses at Kansas City, Chicago, Omaha 
and St. Louis are shipping into the South millions 
of pounds of dressed meats, which have, in large 
part, been finished upon southern-grown cotton- 
seed meal. 

What is true of the cattle situation, is equally 
true with regard to mules. For various reasons 
the mule is much in favor all over the South for a 
work animal, and for a great many years the South 
has been the principal market for the thousands of 
mules produced in the North and Northwest. In 
South Carolina alone it is estimated that at least 
25.000 horses and mules must be added to the state's 
live stock suppl}^ annually in order to keep up the 
supply of work stock. At the present time, a very 
large per cent of these are produced outside of the 
state, and this condition prevails all over the South. 
Yet there is no section of the country more suited 
to the growing of good mules. There is scarcely a 
day in the year when a young mule will not run at 
large in the woods and waste lands of the South 



SOUTHERN AGRICULTURE NEEDS FARM ANIMALS 5 1 

and keep in good condition without receiving a 
single pound of feed other than he is able to gather 
for himself. This condition should be taken ad- 
vantage of, and the millions of dollars now paid to 
northern farmers and stock raisers every year for 
animals with which to draw the plows in the south- 
ern fields, should be kept in the South where it 
belongs. Three million dollars a year for South 
Carolina alone represent the amount paid to 
northern farmers for work animals. The South 
should produce its own work animals, not only in 
order to keep these vast sums of money at home, 
but because they can produce animals which are 
suited by nature to southern conditions, while it 
takes from one to three years for northern-grown 
animals to become accustomed to the climate and 
to reach their greatest degree of efficiency. An- 
other reason, and not the least of them, is that the 
estimated value of the manure produced annually 
by each horse or mule amounts to no less than $28, 
gauged by the market prices of commercial fer- 
tilizers. Southern soil needs this material. 

The field for the growing of hogs in the South is 
unlimited. The old razor-back type which has been 
synonymous for southern live stock for generations, 
was developed from hogs which escaped from their 
owners and became half wild in the southern 
woods, subsisting upon nuts and other foods 
which they were able to find in the woods 
and swamps. They increased tremendously in num- 
ber without any care or attention, and in the face of 
all the obstacles which they would be likely to en- 
counter in wild life. The same conditions which 
permitted this class of animals to thrive so mightily 
are equally favorable for the breeding and growth 
of a type of hogs better suited to modern condi- 



52 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

tions. Where corn and clover are available, there, 
generally speaking, hogs will thrive, and cheap 
gains will be procured. In most sections of the 
South, clover or some other leguminous forage can 
be used for hog pasture every day in the year. 
Corn can be produced at w^ill, and the climate is 
especially favorable to the production of winter 
pigs, w^hich have never been an unqualified success 
in the hog growing districts of the North. 

The South is a wonderful land for legumes. 
There is scarcely a type of soil upon which some 
one or another of various rich leguminous crops 
will not thrive. In one section it may be red clover, 
in another alfalfa and in still another field peas or 
crimson clover or Japanese clover, or soy beans, 
but in nearly every instance some one or more of 
these can be made to produce abundant pasture 
throughout the year. The southern farmer should 
never lose sight of the wonderful soil-restoring 
properties of leguminous crops, w^hile at the same 
time utilizing their growth in the feeding or pas- 
turing of farm animals. 

POSSIBILITIES OF SOUTHERN DAIRYING 

Possibilities for dairying are almost without 
limit. Enough has been said already of the 
forage and feeds which can be produced In this 
section to Indicate to the mind of any practical 
dairyman the wonderful possibilities of milk pro- 
duction under these conditions. This field has 
scarcely been touched. The creamery and butter 
production of the South Is entirely Inadequate to 
meet the demand. Less than one-twentieth of the 
amount used is produced in the South, although 



SOUTHERN AGRICULTURE NEEDS FARM ANIMALS 53 

the southern creameries produce a grade of butter 
that is equal to the best of northern and western 
product. It is estimated that at least 25,000,000 
pounds of creamery butter are imported into the 
South annually from the northern and western 
states. The milk supply of most southern cities 
is inadequate to the demand. In many cities 10 
cents a quart is the prevailing retail price of milk, 
and, in most instances, the product of a first-class, 
up-to-date, sanitary dairy would command much 
higher prices even than this. In some places, a 
shortage of fresh milk of any quality exists, so that 
large hotels are compelled to keep on hand a supply 
of condensed milk to be used in case of emergencies. 
When we consider the effect that the up-to-date, 
advanced type of dairying has had upon the soils of 
northern communities where dairy farming has been 
practiced for a term of years, and when we consider 
also the tremendous field open in the South for this 
type of farming, the results to southern agriculture 
from the addition of several millions of dairy cows 
to its live stock supply can be readily imagined. 
Both the direct and indirect results from the de- 
velopment of an advanced type of dairying will make 
for the financial betterment of the farmers. The 
production of milk and butter for high-priced mar- 
kets by the use of cheap feeds will bring immediate 
financial results to the farmer, while the indirect 
result from the application to the soil of the fer- 
tility produced by these millions of dairy cows will 
result in a permanent readjustment and the up- 
building of the soil's producing capacity. Still, 
many southern farmers have found dairying 
in that section unprofitable. The reason for 
this does not lie in the natural disadvan- 
tages of the region, but is rather because the farm- 



54 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

ers themselves do not know how to make it profit- 
able. In the 13 southern states the average cow, 
according to the census of 1900, produces annually 
only 3,036 pounds of milk. This will test on an 
average, 4^^© per cent of butter fat, and will make, 
therefore, only about 170 pounds of butter. This 
low production and low degree of efificiency of the 
animals kept, is the greatest cause for small profits. 
The standard adopted for a good dairy cow re- 
quires that she shall produce at least 6,000 pounds 
of milk and 288 pounds of butter annually. The 
South not only needs more dairy cows, but it needs 
vastly better ones. In 1900 there were a few more 
than 4.000,000 dairy cows in the 13 southern states, 
producing 1,444,291,536 gallons of milk. These 
cows were in about the 3,000-pound class. If they 
had been of the standard adopted by dairymen for 
a good average dairy cow they would have pro- 
duced 2,859,042,558. This would have represented 
an increased efficiency of 1,414,751,022 gallons of 
milk or 58,400,000 pounds of butter fat. This in- 
crease would have been worth something like 
$240,000,000. In other words, the South was feed- 
ing to her dairy cows an amount of feed which 
produced $240,000,000 less than its true feeding 
value indicated. The southern farmer has begun 
to see that it does not pay him to feed two or three 
cows in order to obtain the amount of milk which 
one cow should produce. He is beginning to see 
that it does not pay him to raise cattle which are 
worth $11 or $12 a head, when a good type of steer 
bred especially for the export beef trade sells in 
Virginia at from $60 to $80 a head. It takes as 
much feed and a lot more work and worry to pro- 
duce the former type than the latter. 



SOUTHERN AGRICULTURE NEEDS FARM ANIMALS 55 

SIGNS OF THE TIMES 

Certain districts in the South within the past 
five years have made enormous strides in ridding 
themselves of the one-crop idea. They no longer 
carry all their eggs in one basket. In some of the 
districts in Texas, which the boll-weevil devastated 
in 1903-4, they are now shipping carloads of cattle 
and hogs — this from a district where five years ago 
every pound of meat consumed locally was shipped 
in from northern packing centers. This same 
progress is true with regard to the raising of po- 
tatoes, onions and other food crops upon land 
formerly devoted exclusively to cotton growing. 
In one district the production of cotton dropped 
from 16,000 bales to 9,000. The farmers were 
driven to raising food crops and live stock, and 
within five years their output of these products had 
increased 500 per cent. At the same time they have 
been able to gradually increase their output of 
cotton, although farming a smaller area in cotton, 
so that by the time this tremendous output in food- 
stufifs was reached they were again producing from 
15,000 to 18,000 bales of cotton. 

These examples of a readjusted southern agricul- 
ture and the best teachings of the southern agricul- 
tural colleges, point out definitely and clearly the 
route for placing southern farming upon a perma- 
nent and suitable basis. Give the southern soil a 
chance to show what it can do in the way of grow- 
ing heavy forage crops of legumes and what it can 
do in the way of producing more and better live 
stock. Give it a rest from its years of tobacco and 
cotton growing, and establish a definite rotation 
which will call for the growing of clovers, and for 
the addition of the fertility produced by the 



56 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

animals. Feed those millions of tons of cottonseed 
meal in southern feed lots and return to the south- 
ern soil which produced it the millions of tons of 
soil fertility contained in it. Raise hogs, cattle, 
mules and sheep. They will represent so much 
clear profit. Return to the soil all the manure pro- 
duced by these animals, and in addition occasion- 
ally plow under a good heavy growth of clover. 
Work into the soil all the organic matter which it 
can take care of. Southern soils must be built up 
and maintained. There is no new land to be opened 
when this wears out. Place soil maintenance upon 
a rational and scientific basis with a well-defined 
rotation of crops, with extensive live stock pro- 
duction as the balancing factor and connecting link 
between rotation and permanent fertility, and the 
South will present a condition of agricultural pros- 
perity which has never been equaled by northern 
localities less favored by natural conditions. 



CHAPTER V 

Let the West Heed the Warning 

The various examples of gradually decreasing 
yields in the southern states and along the Atlantic 
coast should be sufficient warning to the dwellers 
in the more fertile and newer regions of the West 
and Northwest. While it would be difficult to 
prove by statistics that the total yield of grains 
and other crops throughout the United States is 
less than formerly, this decrease is evident and 
easily proved in parts of New England, New York, 
New Jersey and the south Atlantic states, where 
the ground has been cultivated for several hundred 
years. In those localities there is not any ques- 
tion as to the result of continuous grain cropping 
and failure to keep large numbers of live stock. In 
fact, in many sections a considerable percentage of 
the farm land is unprofitable because of waning 
production. On the other hand, in these same old 
localities, frequently examples of maintained fer- 
tility and increased crop production demonstrate 
that by intelligent handling the productive capacity 
of almost any soil in the United States may con- 
tinue for an indefinite period. 

The most disastrous feature in these older sec- 
tions, and which the West should heed, is the 
growing of grain crops continuously on the same 
land. It has been positively proved that decreased 
yields under those conditions must follow. In 
1888, an experimental plot in Champaign county, 
Illinois, under the direction of the university of 
Illinois, was set aside for continuous corn grow- 

57 



58 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

ing. That year the plat yielded 54.3 bushels to the 
acre. The same plat in 1909 yielded 29.4 bushels 
per acre. This is one of the longest and most satis- 
factory experiments in the country with corn, and 
may be taken as an indication of the final result of 
cropping without rotation and live stock. 

While the general farmer does not, of course, 
grow one grain continuously, he very frequently 
thinks that the rotation of corn with oats and 
wheat ought to bring him good results. Yields 
from that kind of a rotation, for a time at least, 
will be greater than from continuous growing of 
corn, or wheat or oats, but in time the land will 
become unprofitable. He soon learns that he must 
include in the rotation leguminous crops — the com- 
mon clovers, alfalfa, beans, peas and vetches. If 
along with this he maintains enough live stock to 
consume the bulk of the grain and forage grown on 
his farm, he can continue to raise profitable crops 
almost indefinitely, provided he does not abuse his 
land by working it when too wet, or by allowing his 
farm animals on the fields when the ground is full 
of moisture. 

A little figuring will demonstrate what the de- 
crease in production really means to the United 
States in particular and to the world, as a whole. 
With the increase in population it will not be many 
years before famine conditions will exist in nearly 
every section. Of course, no one expects that 
farmers will be so unwise as to permit anything of 
this kind, but lack of intelligence and system in 
handling lands will ultimately result in just this 
thing. Statistics going as far back as records are 
available in the United States indicate that for the 
United States, as a whole, the yield of crops has 
increased in the aggregate per acre, rather than 



LET THE WEST HEED THE WARNING 59 

decreased, as is commonly supposed. That this 
will continue is hardly to be expected. Up until 
within the last decade vast tracts of new lands 
have been opened each season and large yields from 
these have tended to maintain the general average. 
Further than that, the number of farm animals in 
the country have also shown an increase. It is a 
recognized fact that the increase in the productive 
capacity keeps pace with the increase in the num- 
ber of farm animals kept. 

Again, going back to figures, it has been shown 
that a lOO-bushel crop of corn takes from the soil 
about 100 pounds of nitrogen, 17 pounds of phos- 
phorus and 19 pounds of potassium in the grain, 
and about 48 pounds of nitrogen, six pounds of 
phosphorus and 52 pounds of potassium in the 
stalks. Now, if this grain and forage is all fed 
on the farm about three-fourths of the nitrogen 
and phosphorus and one-third of the potassium is 
left behind and is available for future crops, pro- 
vided the manure is properly taken care of. If the 
manure is neglected one-half of the fertilizer con- 
stituents are frequently dissipated in three or four 
months. 

FARM MANURE VERY VALUABLE 

Now, to show how really valuable farm manure 
is it must be remembered that each ton of fresh 
manure contains about 10 pounds of nitrogen, 2 
pounds of phosphorus and 8 pounds of potassium. 
As the nitrogen used in crop production can easily 
be collected from the air by growing leguminous 
crops, there is no reason why there should be any 
expense in supplying this element. One ton of clover 
hay contains about 40 pounds of nitrogen, 5 pounds 



6o PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

of phosphorus and 30 pounds of potassium. When 
grown on soil of average productiveness, the roots 
and stubble contain about as much nitrogen as the 
soil has furnished to the plants, so that that con- 
tained in the forage is the quantity added, provided 
it is fed on the farm. 

The phosphorus and potassium actually used in 
crop production must be supplied by the purchase 
of commercial fertilizers in the form of bone meal, 
rock phosphate and the various potassium salts. 
The proposition to supply the necessary organic 
matter and keep the land in proper mechanical con- 
dition is not very difficult, because where live stock 
is kept there must be enough of this material for 
feeding the animals. 

With these facts in mind it is self-evident that 
shipping away vast quantities of corn, oats and hay 
is exceedingly bad practice. It is bad practice from 
the standpoint of soil fertility, and it is bad practice 
to sell the raw material rather than work it into the 
finished product, for the manufacturer's profits are 
lost. It is bad practice to dispose of any raw mate- 
rial on the farm, if by utilizing it at home a higher 
grade of production can be secured and the cost of 
marketing thereby greatly reduced. Compare, for 
example, how much less expensive It is to market 
several carloads of cattle than to dispose of the 
corn and hay and other feeds required to feed them 
for market. A further illustration is seen in the 
dairy industry, w^here the milk is sold in bulk and 
shipped to distributing centers. Where this whole 
milk is sent to the creamery the skim milk is hauled 
back by the man who delivers the whole milk and 
the cost is practically nothing. The butter, which 
represents the finished product, is so small in bulk, 
compared to the milk, that the cost of marketing is 



LET THE WEST HEED THE WARNING 6l 

greatly lessened. It is the same all along the line. 
Market everything you can through your horses, 
your cattle, your hogs, or your sheep. 

STOCK ON HIGH PRICE LAND 

Accepting the above as good, sound business 
policy, the question naturally arises, can live stock 
be profitably raised on $200 an acre land? Prof. H. 
W. Mumford of the university of Illinois insists that 
it can. Some forms of live stock production should 
and will be abandoned. Scrubs must be disposed of. 
Plenty of feed must be used and the feed must be 
economically and judiciously handled. Contrary to 
the opinion that has been frequently expressed, 
Professor Mumford states that except in minor in- 
stances, it is not true that the older agricultural 
countries like Germany, France, Holland and Den- 
mark, are abandoning live stock production because 
of increased population and increased price of land. 
Whether or not live stock may ultimately disappear 
from the farms of the United States is largely a 
matter of conjecture. This tendency is so remote 
that at present it need not be considered. It is the 
consumption of corn and other grains and hay by 
live stock that makes it possible for the man in the 
middle West to produce heavily and thus reach this 
present high valuation. With the elimination of live 
stock husbandry this large return would not be 
possible. It is estimated that 80 per cent of 
the corn produced in the United States is fed 
to live stock. This home consumption, therefore, 
is the chief reason for the high-price grain and con- 
sequent high price of land. Not every farmer will 
be able to make live stock on $200 an acre land pay, 
but, as a rule, the intelligent, skillful feeder can and 



62 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

every farmer, even on this high-price land, will find 
it to his advantage to keep a limited number, at 
least, of all classes of animals adapted to farm con- 
ditions. 

\Miile it is true that profita1)le stock production 
up to date has been usually associated with the 
cheap lands and with free range in the A\^est, it is 
also true that with the settlement of these areas 
the total number of animals in the United States 
is increasing and the benefit to the section as a 
whole is becoming greater and greater every year. 
Therefore, there is probably very little force in any 
argument against the general proposition that stock 
carefully selected, intelligently handled and eco- 
nomically fed is profitable on any land in the coun- 
try. 

The most difficult problem in profitable live stock 
husbandry on lands of the middle and western 
states, under present conditions, is that of cattle. 
Cattle require a large grazing area, and they must 
be at least two years old before they can profitably 
be disposed of. The best authorities say that even 
under these conditions there is no reason why, by 
selecting breeding stock with great care, by feeding 
economically and judiciously, cattle production is 
not profitable. AA'ith hogs and sheep, however, 
the problem is quite different. It is much easier 
to get a start with either hogs or sheep, they mul- 
tiply more rapidly, can be kept on more restricted 
areas and do not consume nearly as large quan- 
tities of feed. 

Taking sheep, there is little or no reason, present 
prices of wool and mutton considered, wh}^ every 
farm in the United States should not support a 
flock containing all the way from 25 to 60 head. 
It may surprise many to know that a flock of this 



LET THE WEST HEED THE WARNING 63 

size on the average farm can be kept at very little 
expense. They will eat feed that other animals 
pass by, will destroy and keep down weeds, will 
clean up brush fields, will eat cheap roots and occupy 
very little stable room. They are not expensive 
animals to take care of, and the cost of maintenance 
for a year, if they are handled as indicated above, 
is so small that the greater part of the balance from 
sales of wool or mutton is net profit. By annually 
culling out the older and inferior animals a small 
flock of high quality can be maintained. They will 
bring a nice sum of money from the sale of wool 
alone. Every fall or winter a number of animals 
are available for fattening and sale as mutton. 
Sheep manure is exceedingly rich and being finely 
divided and widely distributed, is a valuable asset 
to the farmer who keeps a flock. Sheep husbandry 
for the West is, therefore, one of the means by 
which the waning fertility may be checked and con- 
ditions now existing in the older states prevented. 
Much the same conditions surround the hog situ- 
ation. Of course, hogs do not consume as much 
waste material as sheep. They must have con- 
siderable grain, particularly corn. But if properly 
handled, sows may be made to produce two litters 
of pigs every year, and at this rate it is easily pos- 
sible to very rapidly increase the hog stock and still 
have available for sale every season a nice lot of 
fat hogs, which at prices that have prevailed dur- 
ing the past few years, are immensely profitable. 
Hogs can be partially fattened on clover pasture 
and on rape and on other crops which tend to 
increase the fertility of the soil and improve the 
mechanical condition. Hogs do not require a large 
amount of shelter, are easily handled, and during 
the past ten years have not been subject to nearly 



64 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

SO severe outbreaks of cholera and other swine 
diseases as a couple of decades ago. 

That the supply of hogs is not keeping pace with 
the demand is proved by the wonderfully high 
prices paid for fat hogs during the winter of 1909- 
10, when hogs at the central markets sold for 10 
to II cents on the hoof for weeks at a time. There 
is no reason why the industry should not be im- 
mensely profitable, even though the stock be raised 
on $200 an acre land and fed 6o-cent corn. 

The keeping of hogs and of sheep both tend to 
prevent waning fertility, because of the fact that 
they thrive and fatten on leguminous crops, par- 
ticularly the common clovers, alfalfa, cowpeas, soy 
beans and in addition both are well fitted to con- 
sume root crops such as turnips. All these crops 
both add to the fertility of the soil and improve the 
mechanical condition, so that while the hogs and 
sheep are being fattened and fed, the productive 
capacity of the land is being increased. 

As has been so frequently stated, one of the 
most expensive plant foods necessary to maintain- 
ing fertility is nitrogen. This can be secured by 
the growing of clover and leguminous crops and if 
large areas of these crops can be raised every year 
on every Illinois farm, and if these crops are con- 
sumed by some kind of live stock, the West will 
never be compelled to make good a lost fertility, 
as is being done in the East. 

FEED ANIMALS LIBERALLY 

The presence of large numbers of farm animals is 
not, however, the only item that is necessary to 
prevent waning fertility. These animals must be 
liberally fed and the feeds, if the whole proposition 



LET THE WEST HEED THE WARNING 65 

is to be profitable, must be largely produced at 
home. Consequently, first see that you have 
plenty of live stock and then see that your land is 
in good condition and capable of producing large 
crops. After you have secured the crops see that 
the stock is given a liberal quantity and that this is 
fed judiciously, so that the largest amount of benefit 
is received. There is an old saying that the more 
manure produced on the farm the bigger the crops 
and that the bigger the crops the more live stock 
can be kept. This saying is just as true now as 
200 years ago. Corn, alfalfa and common clover 
must be the tripod supporting western agriculture. 
Since the matter of beef production is of such 
paramount importance, it goes without saying that 
on many farms in the middle West more feed will 
be demanded than can be supplied by the acreage 
under cultivation. Consequently, a careful con- 
sideration of buying feed for cattle is worthy of dis- 
cussion. As a general proposition it is a pretty 
difficult problem for a cattleman to show a con- 
siderable profit where he must buy all his feed, 
including corn, or other concentrates and forage. 
The resident of the corn belt, therefore, is fortunate 
in that the bulk of the forage and the greater part 
of his grain feed can be purchased at homie. The 
age and condition of the cattle used must, of course 
be considered. To fatten a two-year-old steer 
weighing i,ooo pounds will require about six 
months. During this time from 55 to 65 bushels 
of corn and one ton of hay will be used. It pays 
to supplement this carbonaceous feed with small 
quantities of oil meal or cottonseed meal. Then, 
if clover and alfalfa are available, conditions are 
quite satisfactory. If cattle are on grass during 
the time the grain is being fed, gains will be made 



(^ 



PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 



at a comparatively small cost. If the feeder knows 
about how much stuff his animals will consume 
during the feeding period he will be able to deter- 
mine whether or not he can feed to advantage. 
So much depends upon local conditions that it is 
absolutely impossible in a work of this kind to give 
any absolute and specific advice. The cost of feed 
any one season, the price received for fat animals, 




BEEF CATTLE BARN 



the cost of hired help — all these things must be 
looked at in the light of local conditions. 

The number of cattle to be kept on the individual 
farm is also a matter which the owner must decide 
for himself. It would probably be inadvisable, 
however, to feed less than a carload. He can 
handle these nicely on a small farm, and is in a 
position to secure numerous advantages in the way 
of reduction on freight, labor, purchased feeds, etc. 
Of course, if he can feed several carloads, he has 
still further advantages. Some animals do not 
fatten quite as quickly as others, so that those ready 



LET THE WEST HEED THE WARNING ^'J 

first can be picked out and shipped and the others 
finished later. The successful feeding of cattle 
loses much of the labor to those who make a close 
study of the business, who take advantage of every 
favorable opportunity of carefully selecting and 
utilizing the various feeds available. 

There are a number of things in feeding cattle 
which must be avoided. For example, one suc- 
cess in a neighborhood often results in disaster 
to those who have not had large experience. They 
figure that if one farmer can feed cattle success- 
fully, there is no reason why another cannot, in 
spite of the fact that this other farmer has had no 
previous training and does not know how to make 
every item count. The only way to succeed is to 
start in a small way. Eventually you will become 
a skilled feeder and will know how to make a profit 
almost every year. In nearly every case cattle for 
feeding have to be purchased from outside. The 
profit in the proposition will depend very largely 
upon your skill in making a purchase. Not only 
should the animals be bought as cheaply as pos- 
sible, but the great problem is to be a good enough 
judge of feeders to select steers of a quiet disposi- 
tion, of typical beef conformation and animals that 
will put on fat rapidly, at the least possible cost. 
After this is done the matter of starting them on 
feed gradually and also being able to detect im- 
mediately any symptoms indicating sickness or 
failure to properly utilize all feed given, are of prime 
importance. 

The general principles enumerated above in re- 
gard to cattle feeding apply also to feeding sheep 
and hogs and to a certain extent to the feeding of 
horses for market, 



CHAPTER VI 

Does Live Stock Pay? 

All live stock is not profitable. It does not re- 
quire careful observation and wide experience to 
demonstrate the truth of this statement. Hundreds 
of thousands of farm animals in the United States 
are kept at a loss. This is wholly unnecessary. 
If judgment is used in selecting breeding stock, if 
common sense is employed in handling and feeding 
it, there is no excuse for unprofitable animals any- 
where. Occasionally an animal becomes unprofit- 
able through sickness or age. Then the thing to do 
is to get rid of it without hesitancy. The great 
trouble to date has been, first, a lack of information 
as to just what a profitable animal is ; second, a 
lack of inclination to dispose of unprofitable stock; 
third, neglect or ignorance in feeding and handling. 

At this day and age of the world, there is ab- 
solutely no excuse for lack of information concern- 
ing farm live stock. There are enough successful 
and practical breeders in the country to prove what 
types are most profitable, so that anyone so dis- 
posed may easily find out what kind of a horse, 
or a cow, or a sheep, or a hog he must keep, if he 
desires to show a profit on the right side of the 
ledger. Never before have the agricultural col- 
leges and experiment stations done so much along 
these lines. This information is available in bul- 
letin and book form or can be obtained by visit- 
ing successful stock breeders, attending agricul- 
tural meetings, etc. To neglect this source of in- 
formation is a decided weakness and should not be 
tolerated. 



DOES LIVE STOCK PAY? 69 

Lack of inclination to dispose of unprofitable 
stock is a more serious problem, for if farmers with 
the information at hand refuse to avail themselves 
of it, there is no means of compelling them to do it. 
The average of intelligence, however, is becoming 
higher and higher on the American farm, so that 
this problem will shortly solve itself. Further than 
this, it has been demonstrated so clearly that un- 
profitable animals are a serious detriment to 
American agriculture that no wide-awake farmer 
will tolerate them. Get rid of the unprofitable herd 
as soon as possible. Do not breed from such stock 
and unprofitable animals will soon disappear. 
Fatten the unprofitable cow, sheep or hog immedi- 
ately and get it out of the way. An unprofitable 
dairy cow may have to be sold at a small figure, 
but the thing to do is to fatten her and send her to 
the slaughterhouse without delay. 

Probably one of the greatest sources of loss by 
unprofitable live stock is keeping dairy cows that 
do not return enough in the way of production to 
pay for their keep. Before the advent of the Bab- 
cock test and the schemes for analyzing and valu- 
ing feeds, there might have been some excuse for 
not knowing just what the dairy cow was worth 
from year to year. With all these devices, how- 
ever, it is now easily possible to determine just 
how much a cow eats during a given period, deter- 
mine its cost, and then compare the cost of feed 
and handling with the return from the pail for a 
few weeks or a few months and you will know what 
the cow is worth to you for the year. Those that 
do not produce at least $io to $15 above the cost of 
production should be disposed of immediately. No 
one should be satisfied with a herd that does not net 
him between $;^^ and $50 per head per year above 



70 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

all expenses. Recent tests in various dairy sections 
of the United States have shown that in many cases 
four cows were not producing as much net profit 
as two should. 

Dairy farming always will be the most profitable 
branch of American agriculture, as long as it is 
intelligently handled. A dairy farmer has a small 
manufacturing plant on his own place. There is 
the raw material in the way of feeds which enter 
into the finished product, such as milk or butter. 
The by-products are retained on the farm for feed- 
ing stock and enriching the soil. If cows of a high 
grade are kept, there is absolutely no question as 
to the final outcome, but the dairy cannot be 
profitably run unless all cows are paying their way 
from the start. 

PROFITS ON HIGH PRICE LAND 

The matter of profitable live stock is becoming 
of increasing importance with the advance of land 
values. AA^hen land was worth from, $20 to $50 
per acre, w^hen corn could be had for 25 cents per 
bushel and oats at 20 cents, when grass could be 
had on the range or on land that was not costly, 
the proposition w^as not so serious. Of course, 
profits were correspondingly small, but the amount 
of capital invested was also small. AVith the pass- 
ing of the years, however, all prices have advanced, 
so that today $200 an acre land in the corn belt is 
common. The dairyman must pay 50 to 60 cents 
per bushel for his corn and 30 to 40 cents and some- 
times more for his oats. His grass is grown on 
land that in many cases is just as valuable as cul- 
tivated areas. Concentrated feed is also high, and 
so it comes about that the scrub must go. The 



DOES LIVE STOCK PAY? 7I 

animal that will not mature quickly, will not breed 
well, will not produce large quantities of milk con- 
taining a high percentage of butterfat,is an unprofit- 
able proposition. Scrub stock is unsatisfactory in 
more ways than one. Uniformity cannot be se- 
cured, early maturity is impossible, the maximum 
utilization of feed cannot be secured, so that the 
only possible way out of the difficulty is for the 
mxodern farmer to make up his mind to keep nothing 
but superior animals. 

This is not as difficult a proposition as one would 
at first suppose. It is not beyond the means of 
any farmer to start and build up a profitable herd 
in any branch of live stock. Of course, I do not 
advise every man to spend a lot of money in start- 
ing a pure-bred herd, buying high price animals, 
but a profitable working herd may be built up with- 
out very much expense. Take, for example, dairy 
cows. If you already have a herd of 20 cows, test 
these carefully and retain only those that pay their 
board. Replace the ones disposed of by purchas- 
ing good, vigorous, thrifty, prolific cows of known 
value. Then buy a pure-bred bull of good in- 
dividuality. When the calves come, retain only 
those which give promise of rapid growth and 
early maturity. When they come into milking, 
test them at once, and if they do not come up to the 
standard, throw them out. Decide on what breed 
you like and buy a bull of that breed. If you want 
to keep Jerseys get good Jersey cows, or at least 
a good grade, and keep a first-class Jersey bull. 
In four or five years you will have a herd of cows 
that cannot fail to return a profit. 

With horses it is even easier. Buy up as many 
roomy, thrifty mares as you want. They need not 
be pure-bred animals, but see that each individual 



/- 



PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 



is a good one. Then buy a stallion, or secure the 
use of one that is pure-bred, that comes from a line 
of ancestors noted for excellence. Dispose of the 
colts that are not satisfactory and in a few years 
you will have horses that will increase your bank 
account right along. The grade mares may gradu- 
ally be replaced by pure breds, if you want a herd of 
this kind. 

The sheep problem is still easier. There is no 
trouble at all in keeping up a lot of grade ewes that 
will breed you first-class lambs. Be sure that you 
have a pure-bred ram at the head and never vary 




IOWA HOG HOUSE 



from this. Dispose of the ewes as they get old, or 
as they become unprofitable from any other cause. 
Do not hesitate about this — fatten them and sell 
them. Keep only the best and in a little while you 
will have a working flock of sheep that is up to 
standard. \\'ith sheep you have not only mutton, 
but wool. Every farmer, or, at least, every farm, 
can profitably keep a small flock, to utilize waste 
feeds, keep down weeds and bring in money with 
a regularity that will be surprising. 

The hog problem is also an easy one. If you like 
Berkshires, buy a couple of sows and a pure-bred 
boar, then use high-grade individual sows to make 
up the balance of your breeding herd. In a very 



DOES LIVE STOCK PAY? 73 

few years you will have pure Berkshires, which 
can be sold at a profit for breeding purposes, or 
turned over to the packer. It is just as easy to do 
the same thing with Poland Chinas, or Durocs, 
Chester Whites, or Mule Foot hogs, or any other 
of the standard breeds. Another thing, above all 
others, to be observed, is to get rid of unprofitable 
individuals and never, under any circumstances, use 
an inferior or grade sire. Always have a pure-bred 
male and see that he is a good one. 

SELECTING BREEDING STOCK 

The matter of intelligently selecting breeding 
stock calls for the nicest discrimination. While 
breeding animals must be pure bred, it does not 
always follow that a pedigreed animal is a desirable 
one. A lot of pedigreed scrubs have done untold 
damage to the breeding interests of this country. 
The individuality of the animal must be considered. 
If an animal has not proper conformation, if vigor 
and constitution are not present, if prepotency does 
not exist, there will be no satisfaction, to say noth- 
ing of profit. 

The first thing to do in selecting a breeding 
animal is to consider blood lines very carefully. 

Find out what his ancestors have done, what 
their records are at shows and at the block. If 
you are breeding fast horses, look up the racing 
records of ancestors back as far as possible, at least 
eight to ten generations. If breeding beef cattle 
find out the show records of ancestors and how 
popular they have been with beef raisers. All 
these things must be given very careful considera- 
tion. If the pedigree is right and if the individual 
is right, and if the breed selected is your favorite. 



74 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

the success of the enterprise depends, then, upon 
careful feeding and liandling. 

The greatest possible damage has resulted by an 
indiscriminate mixing of blood lines. It has been 
so fully demonstrated that a violent cross never can 
result satisfactorily that further discussion would 
seem unnecessary. Yet, even at this late date, it 
is not uncommon to see a cross between a Short- 
horn and Holstein, between a Holstein and a Jersey 
— between Percherons and trotters. The resulting 
stock can never be satisfactory in the long run. The 
first cross may produce possibly a good animal, but 
subsequent crosses are sure to result in a lot of 
animals lacking in uniformity and in characteris- 
tics for which one or both lines have been noted. 
If you breed Shorthorns, stick to Shorthorns and 
the type which, to your mind, is most desirable. 
Do not cross Percherons with Clydesdales, for the 
colt will not make as satisfactory a horse as if 
animals of the same strain had been mated. 

With hogs it is not so bad, if the first cross is to 
be sold to the butcher. A cross, for example, of a 
Berkshire and a Poland China often results in a 
market hog that can be raised with satisfaction and 
sold with profit. To maintain your herd, however, 
you must always have some pure-bred animals, as 
well as animals of some distinct standard breed. 
From these you can maintain your herd and re- 
plenish your breeding stock. If, after this has been 
done, you care to experiment with hogs intended 
for the block, possibly some good results may be 
secured. It is a pretty safe proposition, however, 
to stick to rigid lines and refrain from much cross- 
ing. 

The only place where a pure-bred sire can be 
used without regard to the problems above enumer- 



DOES LIVE STOCK PAY? 75 

ated is when you are grading up your herd, or when 
you are breeding for a good working herd, without 
any regard to developing pure stock, or securing 
"high prices for a pure-bred animal. If you have 
for instance, a lot of good individual cows of vari- 
ous breeds and crosses, the use of a pure-bred bull 
will give you meat animals that may be raised and 
disposed of at a profit. The same is true of sheep 
and hogs, that is, building up a working herd and 
not raising breeding stock. Too much emphasis 
cannot be placed upon this matter for as the years 
go by and as conditions change, it is more and more 
important to give careful thought to the matter of 
keeping your blood lines pure. 



CHAPTER VII 

Basis of Profitable Stock Breeding 

The basis of all profitable live stock breeding 
should be good blood lines. By this is meant 
animals of quality, with ancestors with a record. 
It is not sufficient that an animal should simply 
have a pedigree. It must be a good individual and 
also have ancestors possessing like characteristics. 

With this in mind, the next important step is 
discrimination in selection. The breeder must not 
be influenced by fancy, whim or what are consid- 
ered strictly breed points. The fact that a man 
may much prefer a red Shorthorn will undoubtedly 
influence his selection of breeding stock, but it 
should not determine his choice of a moderately 
satisfactory animal of his favorite color, rather than 
a very high grade roan, for example. Of course, if 
the breeder is not in business from a purely money 
standpoint, he can aflford to indulge in fancies, al- 
though the results will, in the end, not be so satis- 
factory as though he had adhered to recognized 
and established principles of breeding. If in con- 
nection with these principles of selection he feeds 
liberally and judiciously, provides shelter during 
the winter and shade during the summer, there is 
no reason why he should not have a profitable pro- 
ducing herd, which will increase in value from year 
to year. 

The matter of selecting a breed is largely a mat- 
ter of personal preference and environment. One 

76 



BASIS OF PROFITABLE STOCK BREEDING JJ 

man may have a very marked preference for Short- 
horns. This may be based on sentiment, or upon 
his belief that Shorthorns are the most profitable 
cattle. One may be attracted by the compact form 
and beautiful white markings of the Hereford. He 
may be convinced that Herefords are the ^ best 
animals, but a choice between the Shorthorn and 
the Hereford quite often is determined by the be- 
lief that Herefords look better. Then, too, one 
feeder may prefer the Angus, partly because they 
are very compact animals, uniform in color, and, 
of course, they are high-grade beef producing 
animals. Then, too, the matter of environ- 
ment must also be considered. Herefords 
have the reputation of being good rustlers, 
able to take care of themselves under rather ad- 
verse conditions. For this reason Hereford cattle 
have always been popular on the range, where oc- 
casionally feed may be short and weather condi- 
tions severe. Angus cattle are considered best 
adapted to the corn belt conditions, where rich 
pasture and plenty of grain are always available. 
Galloways ought to do well in rough, mountainous 
regions, because the breed originated in very rocky 
territory in Scotland. 

Chester White hogs, for example, are not consid- 
ered entirely satisfactory for southern latitudes, be^ 
cause it is claimed they show more of a tendency to 
sun scald than some of the dark breeds. Poland 
Chinas are exceedingly popular in the corn belt, 
because they do especially well on a ration consist- 
ing largely of corn. Yorkshires and Tamworths 
are considered desirable bacon hogs in Canada, be- 
cause they thrive on field peas and oats, barley and 
other feeds which grow in abundance in that region. 

Shire and Clydesdale horses are most popular in 



78 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

Canada, because of the preponderance of English 
and Scotch. This is largely a sentimental reason. 
In the United States, where sentiment plays 
a smaller part, the Percheron is probably the 
most popular horse, because of his activity, his 
clean limbs and his value as a general purpose beast 
of burden. 

Rambouillet and Merinos are popular on the 
western ranges because of their great rustling qual- 
ities and hardy constitution. 

Consequently, because of the great variety of 
tastes and varying conditions of soil and climate, 
there will always be representatives of the leading 
breeds of live stock, widely distributed. It makes 
very little difference what breed is chosen, pro- 
vided it is suited to the purpose for which it is 
purchased. There are excellent animals in all 
breeds, so that if one man prefers a Hereford, an- 
other a Shorthorn, and a third a Galloway, all of 
these breeders have a splendid chance to succeed, 
because they believe thoroughly in their favorite 
types and will build up a profitable herd. 

SELECTING BREEDING ANIMALS 

After the blood lines are determined upon, after 
the selection has been carefully made, after the 
breed has been decided upon, it must not be for- 
gotten that, after all, the most important item is 
quality. Quality is a rather difficult term to de- 
scribe, because it has a different meaning applied 
to different purposes. In general, it means a high 
grade animal, thrifty, compact and vigorous in 
every particular. Taking beef cattle, there are two 
divisions of quality. Generally speaking, quality 
means refinement of external conformation, as seen 



BASIS OF PROFITABLE STOCK BREEDING 79 

in the head, form, bones, muscle and smoothness 
of outHne. It is affected by nothing so much as by 
breeding. It is not often found in the plainer bred 
steer, but is generally characteristic of a well-bred 
animal. The possession of general quality is of 
the utmost importance in selecting feeders. It is 
difficult to explain ; its determination comes largely 
by experience. It is for this reason that an old 
cattleman can often discover this form better than 
one who is thoroughly familiar with live stock, but 
has not had large experience in selecting the 
feeders. 

The second quality is called handling quality. 
This indicates that the animal is a good feeder. 
This is determined by the feel of the skin. To be 
a good handler, the hair must be of medium fine- 
ness and the whole animal have the appearance 
of good breeding. 

The farmer must be familiar with the leading 
characteristics of the different types. To illustrate 
this, a consideration of one type in each of the gen- 
eral classes of farm animals will be enumerated. 

CONFORMATION AND CHARACTERISTICS 

As the draft horse is probably the most profit- 
able for the general farmer, a somewhat detailed 
enumeration of desirable characteristics will be 
given. The general formation of the draft horse 
includes a heavy frame, a compact and blocky body, 
a comparative shortness and strength of limb, all 
these being in proportion. The weight is a most 
important consideration in a draft horse. A draft 
animal in fair condition at maturity ought to weigh 
anywhere from 1,500 to 2,000 pounds. The height 
is not so material, provided the necessary weight is 
present. Quality and substance, as shown in hard 



80 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

bone and joint, should be prominent. The hair 
should be fine and silky, the bones smooth, the 
joints neat and the lower limbs free from superflu- 
ous flesh. The action of the draft horse is par- 
ticularly important in America. In the old country, 
where speed is not so important, the heavy and 
clumsy draft horse answers very well for hard 
work, but here even farmers desire action, and this 
is especially required by expressmen and others 
using large numbers of draft horses. Feet must 
be picked up with a snap and carried clear of the 
ground. High knee action is not essential, but a 
strong, steady movement of both knee and hock, 
without suddenness, is very important. The head 
should be lean, but not out of proportion to the 
body, having plenty of breadth between the eyes. 
The neck must be strong and muscular, with a 
slight arch. The shoulders should not be long and 
sloping as with light horses, but more upright, 
being well set in the back. The chest should be 
full and deep, indicating large capacity of the vital 
organs. The knee must be broad, the cannon bone 
round, with the tendons extending back to back, so 
that the attachment is deep and strong. The pas- 
tern, which is an important part of the leg, should 
be fairly long and perfectly smooth and free from 
extra flesh. The feet ought to be large, heavy, 
dense, preferably black in color and the frog large. 
The body should be short on top, long below, broad 
along the back, with ribs strongly attached. 

The hock requires most careful study, for this 
joint is the seat of many troubles. As the horse 
stands in a natural position the hock should be 
straight and true, viewed from behind, showing no 
evidence of weakness. Where the hock holds a 
true position, the hind feet also stand true, neither 



BASIS OF PROFITABLE STOCK BREEDING 8l 

toeing in nor out. If a joint is too fleshy, puffiness 
is apt to occur, or a form of spavin is apt to exist. 

Beef cattle, when of correct type, show a dis- 
tinctly meat-producing formation. The animal is 
broad of back from shoulder points to hips, has a 
wide, deep body, short and somewhat thick neck, and 
rather a broad, thick, fleshy hindquarter. Viewed 
from one side the top and bottom lines of the body 
run nearly parallel, with the back quite level. 
Cattle of this type are commonly referred to as 
blocky, indicating compactness of form. The head 
must have a strong, broad muzzle, indicating 
superior grazing and feeding qualities. The nos- 
trils should be broad, forehead broad and reason- 
ably full, the horns refined, ears neat and attached 
to the head without coarseness. 

The breast and chest are most important in beef 
animals. The breast should be carried well forward 
and be broad and full in the bosom. The chest, 
which lies between the shoulders and just back of 
them, should be full at the crops, showing much 
spring of ribs, and also well filled out in the front 
flanks. Too much depression behind the shoulders, 
or a narrow, contracted lower chest indicates lack 
of constitution. The front legs should have wide, 
muscular attachments. Thev should be short, 
coming straight down, viewed from the front 
or side. Closeness about the knees indicate a nar- 
row chest. Fine bone and smooth joints are an 
evidence of superior quality. 

The back of beef cattle carries an immense weight. 
It must, therefore, be strong. All the high price 
meats on the carcass are found on the back, so that 
it is important that the ribs be well arched, to carry 
as much of this high price product as possible. The 
hindquarters, viewed from behind, should be thick, 



82 PROFITABLE STOCK R.\ISING 

coming" down perpendicularly on the outside, where 
the thighs naturally narrow. 

Quality in a beef animal is shown by a fine bone ; 
moderately fine hair ; a mellow, moderately loose 
skin ; medium size, well set ears, and horns of 
moderate size and fine texture. Coarse bone, rough 
joints, long legs, scraggy horns, indicate lack of 
quality. The skin is a most important indication 
of quality. Taken in the hands over the ribs it 
must seem mellow and pliable to the touch, being 
easily grasped and stretched. Thin skin is undesir- 
able in a beef animal, while, on the other hand, a 
very thick skin is to be avoided. 

The ability to put on flesh evenly is of great 
importance in the beef animal. The increase must 
be uniformly distributed all over the body. This 
can be determined by passing the palm of the hand 
along the back and shoulders or sides. It should 
find no evidence of irregular covering, with poor 
spots in one place and heavy fleshing in others. 

DAIRY CHARACTERISTICS 

Dairy cattle are entirely different from beef 
cattle. The body is not so thick, there is less 
strength of back, the thighs are narrow and the 
neck slender. The triple wedge form is associated 
with the dairy cow. View^ed from one side, she 
shows a less depth of body in front than behind. 
She gradually widens from the breast to a point 
of the hips and hindquarters. Looking down the 
back at the withers, the form widens out like a 
wedge toward the middle of the body. INIany 
notable dairy cows possess this wedge form in a 
striking degree, but, of course, exceptions occa- 
sionally are made. 

Fleshiness of the dairy cow is objectionable, 



BASIS OF PROFITABLE STOCK BREEDING 83 

except possibly where the animals are young. 
The head of the dairy animal must be lean, 
with broad muzzle, short nose, large nostrils and 
dish face. The ears must be thin and pointed. The 
horns must be very fine, without any indication of 
coarseness. The neck is long and muscular, with the 
exception of bulls, in which it is strong and heavily 
muscled. Shoulders should incline at a good angle 
well into the back. The withers should be sharp 
and narrow. 

The breast of dairy cattle does not show so great 
width as in the beef type and the same is true of the 
chest. The ribs must be well sprung, to provide 
large capacity for the consumption and utilization 
of feeds. Dairy cows with very short ribs are poor 
feeders and usually possess defective constitutions. 
The front legs should be straight. 

The back of the dairy cow usually shows some 
droop from shoulder to hip line. This, however, 
must not become excessive, as a strong, well-sus- 
tained back, with but little depression, is to be 
preferred to the sway back. 

The udder of the dairy cow is a most important 
part, in that it indicates capacity of producing milk. 
The skin of the udder should be soft and the hair 
should be fine. Large cows should have larger 
udders than small cows, and the animal of from 
900 to 1,000 pounds in weight should, at six years 
old, have an udder that will yield at least 40 pounds 
of milk a day. The milk veins which convey blood 
through the udder are usually regarded as indica- 
tions of a cow's general capacity to produce milk. 
On good dairy cows the veins are very large, tor- 
tuous and proiminent. The milk wells or openings 
admitting the milk veins into the under part of the 
belly should be large. Large milk wells and prom- 



84 



TROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 



inent milk veins are a pretty safe guide as to the 
productive capacity of the dairy cow. 

HOGS AND MUTTON SHEEP 

While it is very difficult to indicate the most 
striking- features of sheep, in a general way the 
mutton type will be taken as an example. In gen- 
eral, the mutton conformation of the sheep has 
many of the features of the beef type in cattle. 
The body must be compact, the form blocky, the 
head and neck short, the back broad and level, hind- 




ELEVATION OF II OG HOUSE 



quarters full and heavy and body deep. With the 
mutton breeds the matter of flesh production is of 
first consideration, consequently the form that will 
produce the largest percentage of the most desir- 
able cuts is the one to be aimed at. The shoulder 
is valuable for mutton and should be neatly placed 



BASIS OF PROFITABLE STOCK BREEDING 



85 



and not too prominent at the top. This entire part 
must be smoothly covered with flesh. The back 
and loins contain valuable cuts, so that the strength, 
width and thickness are essential at all times. The 
body, to have ample capacity, must, of course, have 
strongly arched and deep ribs. The thigh should 
be thick from behind and very full and low. The 
entire upper thigh should be heavily covered with 
flesh, as this is one of the most valuable mutton 
cuts. The chest, of course, is most important, as it 
contains the vital organs. It should have both 
thickness and depth. The withers must be wide 
and smoothly covered. As with the beef types of 
cattle, the flesh of the mutton type of sheep must 




FLOOR PLAN OF KOG, HOUSE;. 



be smooth and uniformly distributed, free from 
wads of fat or patchiness. 

The wool of mutton sheep ranges in length from 
that of the Merino to ten or possibly more inches. 
The fleece does not cover the body as compactly 
as in the fine wool breeds. The fiber ranges from 
very fine to coarse. A bright fiber with a brilliant 
luster is very desirable. The entire body should 
be covered with fleece. The oil or yolk should be 



86 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

of moderate abundance, thus keeping the wool in 
a healthy condition. 

Probably no animal on the farm will make money 
more rapidly than the hog. Hogs are easily kept, 
large litters are produced that can be sent to mar- 
ket at nine months, thus enabling the farmer to 
turn his money quick. There are many varieties 
of hogs in the United States, but the most desir- 
able type of any breed, as the animal is kept solely 
for pork, is the one that possesses compactness of 
form, breadth of back, large hams, strength of limb 
and a capacity to fatten rapidly and mature early. 
The American desires a type of hog that carries a 
large amount of fat. It represents the extreme type 
of meat production and, of course, is the most 
popular in the corn states. In other countries this 
type of hog is not looked upon with favor, as a 
bacon animal Is preferred, but here bacon hogs are 
not very numerous and under the conditions exist- 
ing in nearly every part of the country, even the 
bacon hogs begin to take on the fat-producing form 
after they have been bred for a number of years. 
It may be taken for granted, then, as a rule, that 
the hog popular in the corn belt is true to American 
type. In general, a profitable pork-producing hog 
should be compact and big of body, with a short, 
well-formed head, broad back, large, heavy hams, 
short legs, plenty of quality, as shown by an abun- 
dance of fine hair, strong bones and joints. In 
disposition the animal should be mild, so that he 
will fatten easily. 

The size is largely determined by the demands 
of the market. At some markets hogs ranging 
from 220 to 230 pounds are most popular, while at 
others considerably heavier ones bring the best 
prices. It is pretty hard to breed for the ones 



BASIS OF PROFITABLE STOCK BREEDING 87 

most in demand, because of the fluctuations in 
standards, consequently a moderate-sized animal 
that matures early will probably in the long run 
be the most profitable. 

In hogs the head is an important indication of 
quality. It is short and broad. Excessive fat 
around the eyes is undesirable. The neck should 
not be long, but broad and strong. A wide breast 
and deep, capacious chest indicate constitution. 
The shoulder should fit smoothly to the body, 
showing no roughness or openness at the top. A 
smooth, broad, evenly fleshed shoulder is most de- 
sirable, from the market point of view. The back 
and loins are very important. The ribs must be 
well sprung and the loins broad and compact. The 
width of the back should be carried the entire 
length, from shoulder to hips. A drooping back 
indicates weakness. The ham is one of the highest 
priced parts of the hog, and must be fully developed. 
A high-class ham viewed from behind is thick at 
the edge and low at twist. From the side the 
relative length is long from hip joint to the lower 
corner of the ham. 

The fleshing quality of the ham is most important. 
The flesh must be evenly distributed and the back 
and sides, shoulders, rump and hams must be uni- 
formly covered with meat that feels mellow to the 
touch, yet firm. Smoothness of covering is very 
essential. Wrinkles are objectionable and indicate 
lack of quality in a hog. 

The disposition of the hog should be quiet. The 
Poland China is a notable example of this phleg- 
matic character, and it is to this characteristic, to a 
large extent at any rate, that its great fattening 
ability is due. Active, restless hogs do not put on 
flesh. 



88 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

Each particular type of farm animal has, of 
course, its distinctive characteristics, which cannot 
be presented in this connection. Enough has been 
said, however, to indicate what must be looked for 
in certain general types. If all these things are 
given consideration and carefully noted, live stock 
raising will be a success, provided the farmers see 
they are fed economically. There is a vast difference 
in individuals as to the utilization of feed. Some 
animals will eat sparingly and always be fat. 
Others will consume feed ravenously and will never 
fatten. When selecting breeding animals, as well 
as feeders, this property should be given careful 
attention, as it is most important, the profit end con- 
sidered. 



CHAPTER VIII 
Principles of Breeding 

The object of breeding is to increase the number 
of animals and to improve the herd. That is as far 
as the matter need go with the ordinary farmer. 
Of course, with the scientific breeder, the additional 
object of the origination of new varieties offers a 
fascinating field. For the general farmer, however, 
the two objects named should be the ones given the 
bulk of attention. Throughout the United States 
the improvement of the herd or flock is of the 
greatest possible importance. Very few farmers 
can afford to start with an entire outfit of pure-bred 
animals, both male and female. Wealthy people 
and those who plan to make the breeding of live 
stock their exclusive life work, probably can afford 
to do this, but for the ordinary stockman, for the 
general farmer, for the man who wants to keep farm 
animals to maintain the fertility of his land, the 
matter of starting with a pure-bred, high-grade in- 
dividual sire and selecting good individual females 
from common stock, is the one that will, in the end, 
be the most profitable. Of course, the end is a 
purely commercial one, but the great majority of 
stockmen must consider the money side and largely 
disregard the sentimental features. 

The above being true, grading — that is, the mating 
of a common or unimproved parent with a highly 
bred one — is the most satisfactory method. One 
pure-bred bull with a herd of 20 cows gives a crop 
of calves that are half bloods. In other words, this 
is a case where the bull is half the herd. If a pure- 



[)0 TROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

bred cow is mated with a scrub bull, only one 
animal is a half breed. In the case noted, 20 of 
them are half blood. This shows the extreme neces- 
sity of having a pure-bred sire. By constantly 
using a pure-bred sire, it can be easily shown that 
the sixth generation contains 98.44 per cent of 
purity and only 1.56 per cent of unimproved blood. 
This sixth generation is practically pure-bred. The 
unimproved blood becomes insignificant and rapidly 
disappears. This is why, in the early days of a 
breed, the sixth or seventh generation is considered 
eligible to record. It must be remembered that if 
grades are used, absolutely no progress is made. 
For example, if half bloods are bred to half bloods, 
half bloods will be produced indefinitely. The 
progress in grading ceases as soon as the pure-bred 
sire is discontinued. 

It is, therefore immensely important, in fact, al- 
most a violation of one of the cardinal principles of 
live stock husbandry, to use anything but a pure- 
bred sire. Those not thoroughly informed are apt 
to be misled by the fact that occasionally a half 
blood sire is a splendid individual and to all out- 
ward appearances is superior to many pure-bred 
males, ^^^ith the above in mind, however, it can 
be seen how exceedingly foolish it is to breed from 
anything but an animal of pure blood if improve- 
ment is expected and desired. 

For practical purposes, many grades are just as 
satisfactory and as profitable as pure-bred animals. 
This is the cheering thought where herd improve- 
ment is desired by people of moderate means. 
Anyone visiting central live stock markets knows 
that the bulk of the offspring of fat stock is grades. 
Grades can be produced cheaply when fattened and 
disposed of at the slaughterhouses. The meat is. 



PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING 9I 

however, practically as good and there is just as 
much of it as if the animals were pure bred. 
Consequently, to any but the man who is raising 
foundation stock and to the man who is a sen- 
timentalist, the grade answers admirably, but do 
not use a grade sire. 

CROSSING EXPLAINED 

Crossing is the mating of two different, distinct 
races, breeds or varieties in hope of securing an 
animal that will be of high character. This form 
is adapted only to the production of new strains 
and should be handled with a great deal of care, 
and only by skillful breeders. Practically the only 
cross that can be employed on the general farm is 
that used in the production of the mule. The prin- 
ciples of mule raising are so thoroughly understood 
and so clearly set forth in another chapter of this 
book that no argument need be presented here in 
their favor. Outside of that, crossing is a pretty 
serious operation and is apt to result in disappoint- 
ment. There is danger of reversion to the original 
. type and the production of unprofitable animals to 
so great an extent that, with the single exception 
referred to, crossing may very wisely be avoided 
by any except those thoroughly informed. The 
mating of cattle, for example, of widely divergent 
type, such as the Shorthorn and the Jersey, is bad 
practice. You may get neither a good beef 
animal nor a good dairy animal. Size is lost and 
lack of uniformity is sure to result. In picking out 
feeders in any community, the man making the 
selection will carefully avoid any animal that shows 
signs of Jersey blood. Not that these crosses are 
not frequently fattened with profit, but the care 
and the risk is too great. 



92 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

For the purpose of perpetuating certain desirable 
types of animals within a particular breed, line breed- 
ing is often practiced. By this is meant the restric- 
tion of selection and mating to the individuals of a 
single line of descent. Breed improvement, and 
som-etimes herd improvement, makes it impossible 
to confine selection to the limits of the breed. How- 
ever, those who practice line breeding are not so 
much concerned in the commercial side as in the 
establishment of a certain type. Line breeding ex- 
cludes everything outside the approved type. It 
necessitates the mating of animals similar in char- 
acter, purifies the pedigree and gives ancestors an 
opportunity to dominate the system, and while it 
is practiced by a number of breeders and some 
practical farmers in order to fix desirable character- 
istics, it is not the common practice and probably 
never will be among the general farmers and ordi- 
nary stockmen in the country. It has large ad- 
vantages and should not be neglected. The chief 
danger in line breeding is that in the anxiety to 
perfect a pedigree and secure certain character- 
istics, breeding animals of inferior merit are often 
used. A line-bred animal is valuable or dangerous, 
exactly in proportion as the individual has been kept 
up to grade. No other system of breeding, how- 
ever, has ever been of as great benefit to the live 
stock interests. The only thing to avoid is to be 
sure that all the animals used for breeding are 
animals of excellent individuality. 

Another form of herd improvement not thor- 
oughly understood and concerning w^hich there has 
been much error is that of inbreeding. This means 
that animals closely related are mated. This form 
is used so that when an animal of superior excel- 
lence appears, his or her characteristics are pre- 



PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING 93 

served by breeding his descendants. It is possible 
by this method to secure the highest percentage of 
blood of an exceptional individual and to establish 
a strain that will perpetuate desirable character- 
istics. If persisted in, the outside blood disappears 
and the pedigree is rapidly enriched. Inbred 
animals are recognized as especially prepotent. 
The disadvantages of inbreeding are that if an 
animal possesses any undesirable characteristics, 
these characteristics, of course, are apt to be mul- 
tiplied in the descendants, for good as well as bad 
features are transmitted. There have been numer- 
ous failures of inbreeding and these have probably 
overshadowed the advantages. A careful investi- 
gation shows that inbreeding is not necessarily 
harmful, if properly handled. If animals lacking 
in vigor and low in fertility are excluded, the best 
of results will ordinarily come from Inbreeding. 
Some of the very best and most successful live- 
stock men in the United States have practiced in- 
breeding, and are able to show, at this time, herds 
and flocks in prize rings, successful at the heads of 
herds, and approaching, In every way, the breeder's 
ideal of profitable live stock. Vigor, of course, is 
the first proposition and fertility is a close second. 
If these two characteristics are looked out for, there 
will be very little danger In inbreeding. It Is a 
rather risky proposition to recommend It Indiscrim- 
inately to the general farmer, but the principles are 
perfectly plain, so that he can practice It with profit 
just as well as his more specialized brother. 

IMPORTANCE OF PURE-BRED SIRE 

With these general principles of breeding in 
mind, is it not perfectly plain that it will never do 



94 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

to Ignore the pure-bred sire? It will never do, 
under any circumstances, to use a sire that lacks 
pure blood because he is a splendid individual. It 
probably will be all right for the first generation 
if the animals are to be disposed of for meat, but 
even then it is a risky proposition. He will not 
produce as uniform stock as a pure-bred sire. The 
progeny will not fatten as readily, nor mature as 
uniformly, so that every farmer ought to make up 
his mind to use nothing but pure-bred sires, no 
matter what other advice may be given him or 
what his desires may be. In some instances, laws 
have been enacted agfainst breeding anything but 
pure-bred stallions and forbidding the standing of 
a grade. Other states are rapidly taking up these 
laws, and it would be a splendid thing for the live 
stock interests if this law could apply also to cattle, 
sheep and hogs. 

If it is admitted that the sire is half the herd, 
and the important part of the live stock industry, 
his care becomes a matter of great moment. Be- 
ginning with calfhood in cattle, he should be 
liberally, yet judiciously, fed. He should be so 
handled as to develop rapidly and completely. His 
vigfor must alwavs be taken into consideration. He 
must not be overfed, so that his vitality will be 
impaired in any way. He must not be kept too 
fat. He must not be fed exclusively on highly 
carbonaceous foods. He must not be confined ; he 
must be given a liberal amount of exercise, but even 
here, moderation must rule. Of course, he will be 
started on mother's milk. This holds true in the 
cases of horses, cattle, sheep or hogs. If the supply 
is ample, no additional feed will be needed for some 
weeks, except that he should be permitted to run 
with the mother on pasture. He will soon learn to 



PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING 95 

nibble at the grass. A little later, he can be fed a 
small amount of crushed oats. He must also be 
taught, before cold weather arrives, to eat forage. 
Keep hay or fodder where he can get at it, and he 
will have acquired this without any teaching. It 
is presumed that on the ordinary farm the young 
stock come in the spring, so that his supply of feed 
during the summer will be the milk, the grass and 
the little grain that may be supplied. He will get 
plenty of exercise in the pasture, the only precau- 
tion necessary being that he be protected from flies 
during the hot, dry weather of August and early 
September. This is accomplished by providing a 
dark shed, to which the dam and the young animal 
may resort during the heat of the day. As fall 
approaches and cold weather begins to appear, some 
confinement will undoubtedly be necessary and the 
young animal will have to be weaned. Begin feed- 
ing gradually and insist on the future herd header 
running in the open as much as possible. Nothing 
is better than an open shed, adjacent to a pasture. 
Feed alfalfa hay and oats, to which a little corn 
may be added, providing this corn does not result 
in an abundance of fat. Keep him in a good, 
healthy growing condition without becoming over- 
fat. Every day during the winter let the young 
animal run out, provided the weather is not 
stormy. He is a good deal better off in the open 
air, where he can get exercise, than confined in a 
stall. He must, however, always be provided with 
a warm stable during cold, wet, stormy or snowy 
weather. This is particularly important with sheep, 
but should not be neglected with cattle, horses or 
hogs. The second summer give him all the blue 
grass pasture he wants. Let him have a little 
clover; feed small amounts of oats all during- the 



96 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

season, so that he will continue to grow. If he 
can nibble at a manger full of tame hay — alfalfa or 
some of the clovers are best, but timothy will do no 
harm — he will grow more rapidly than if main- 
tained on grass alone. Continue this treatment 
until he is ready to begin his services as a pro- 
genitor of high-grade animals. If he is a good 
individual, he will begin his work in the best pos- 
sible condition and will give a good account of 
himself. 

The care of the females is almost identical with 
that of the males. They must be liberally, yet 
judiciously, fed and sheltered. The feeds must be 
selected with an idea of building up frame, of de- 
veloping muscle, of stimulating those qualities 
which are most desired — milk producing in the 
dairy animal, wool and mutton in the sheep, laying 
on of fat in the case of hogs, the production of a 
large percentage of well marbled beef in the heavy 
strains of cattle and the developing of stamina in 
the case of horses. 

Note the difference between this treatment and 
that in animals intended for consumption. This 
applies to beef animals, hogs and the mutton 
breeds of sheep. These should be, of course, fed 
judiciously, but they should be pushed from the 
very start so as to hasten maturity, for it is the 
animal that goes to market quickest, other things 
being equal, that returns the largest profit. Note 
the popularity of baby beef and hothouse lambs 
and hogs that are sold at nine months. True, they 
must be fed so that large growth is possible, so that 
the greatest amount of gross weight may be secured 
at the end of any particular period, but after this is 
accomplished no consideration need be given to the 
descendants of these animals intended for the 



PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING 97 

block. The whole problem is simply to keep them 
in good healthy condition and to fatten them as 
rapidly as possible with the least expense. These 
animals, too, must be protected from unfavorable, 
disagreeable weather, must be given good, clean, 
wholesome feed, must be given a very limited 
amount of exercise and must be provided with pure 
water. 

It goes without saying that blood cannot take 
the place of good feeding and good care. A pure- 
bred animal or herd will rapidly deteriorate and 
become an absolute expense, instead of a profit, if 
feeding and care is not present. The fact that most 
pure-bred animals are in better condition than those 
that are not royally bred is partly due to the fact 
that the breeder owning them has sufficient interest 
in his animals to give them better care than is ac- 
corded to the scrub animal. True, pure-bred 
animals of good individuality will do better under 
rough conditions and neglect than the animal 
whose ancestors have not been bred for a great 
many years for vigor and vitality, but no pure-bred 
herd can approach anything like a maximum of 
profit or of excellence if the feed is poor or if the 
shelter is not provided. Why was it necessary 
that the herd bulls on the range during the period 
of large ranches had to be so frequently replaced 
by animals from herds that were given liberal at- 
tention and good care? It was due to this very 
fact that it is impossible, on account of range con- 
ditions, to give the shelter and feed necessary to 
best developments. The pure-bred animal could 
not be seen at his best unless he was given this care 
on the ranch or brought from the older sections 
where abundance of feed and shelter were available. 

To the average farmer who keeps stock, and every 



98 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

farmer in the United States, must sooner or later 
keep farm animals, the breeding proposition is 
particularly fascinating and is interesting because 
of the fact that it results in a much larger profit. 
Don't think that you cannot handle pure-bred stock. 
They respond to good care better than scrubs. 
Don't think that you cannot get up your common 
herd or flock. You know what a good individual 
is if you have been brought up on a farm, and if 
you haven't, there are so many sources of informa- 
tion now that there is little excuse for ignorance. 
With this knowledge it is very easy to discard the 
unprofitable animals, to keep the best, to use a good 
individual, pure-bred sire and before many years 
you will have a herd of which you will be proud. 
You will have a herd in which your children will 
take a deep interest. You will have a herd that 
will increase your bank account from direct sales 
and also because of the part it plays in keeping up 
the fertility of the land devoted to cultivated crops. 



CHAPTER IX 

Feeds and Feeding 

The problem of securing large and economical 
gains in the feeding of live stock is not entirely 
one of food supply, although this is the factor 
which can be most definitely controlled and upon 
which we have the most reliable information. The 
other factor is the individuality of the animals 
themselves. Two animals alike as to external ap- 
pearance, of equal age and equal weight, when 
placed under exactly the same conditions and given 
exactly similar feed, will generally not make equal 
gains, because of the inherent ability of the one to 
utilize its feed to better advantage than the other. 
The general question of feeds, however, as to kind, 
amount and methods of feeding for securing any 
desired result with any one class of live stock, has 
received greater attention at the hands of investi- 
gators and experimenters than probably any other 
single phase of agricultural science. 

PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING 

We have a vast amount of reliable information 
bearing upon the composition of feeds under all 
conditions and the effect of these feeds used in 
varying proportions in securing a desired result in 
live stock feeding. It is not the purpose of this 
work to enter into extended discussion of all the 
problems pertaining to live stock feeding — to even 
touch upon each of the various phases of this sub- 
ject would require a volume in itself. Much of 

99 



100 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

tlic really vital information bearing upon live stock 
feeding is of a highly technical nature, and it is 
not within the province of this volume to enter 
into a scientific or technical discussion of the 
facts. There are certain basic principles, how- 
ever, underlying the science, which are essential 
to success, and which are observed by all ex- 
perienced feeders. These principles are based 
upon the chemical composition of the animal body 
and upon the chemical composition of the forage 
and grain used to produce animal bodies. While 
there are many subdivisions of these materials, 
they may all be roughly divided into two general 
classes, which are known as nitrogenous and non- 
nitrogenous. The former composes, in a large de- 
gree, the muscular tissue of the body, w^hile the 
latter class forms animal fat and serves to keep 
up the body heat. The forages and grains com- 
monly used in animal feeding may also be divided 
roughly, according to chemical composition, into 
two similar groups, one of which contains a pre- 
ponderance of the materials used in building up 
the muscular or nitrogenous parts of the animal 
body, and the other containing a large proportion 
of the chemical elements going to build up the 
non-nitrogenous portions of the body. The science 
of successful feeding consists of the blending of 
these two classes of feeds in such proportions that 
the best results will be secured in the animal 
growth. Protein is a term commonly applied to 
the muscle-building material in foods. The legu- 
minous hays, such as clover, alfalfa and cowpeas, 
and such grains as oats, wheat and barley, are rich 
in this material. Carbohydrates is the term very 
commonly applied to the fat and heat-forming 
foods. Such forages as corn fodder, timothy and 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 10 1 

other grasses, straw and sorghums, such grain as 
corn, and all substances containing starch and 
sugar in large proportions, belong in this class. 

Generally speaking, the best results cannot be ob- 
tained from feeding exclusively rations which con- 
tain one of these important food elements to the 
practical exclusion of the other, for the needs of 
the animal body require that the two shall be 
blended in certain proportions in order that sym- 
metrical development take place, and no part be 
developed at the expense of another. It should not 
be inferred that it is impossible to sustain life for 
considerable periods without the proper blending 
of all food elements. Life and a certain degree of 
growth have been maintained for long periods by 
the use of unlimited amounts of one kind of food. 
At the Illinois experiment station a June calf was 
maintained exclusively upon skim milk until the 
following January. At this time, however, it began 
to refuse its feed, became unable to hold up its 
head, and appeared to be about to die. Straw and 
hay were then offered it. It ate greedily and within 
a few hours had begun to improve, and from that 
time on made satisfactory gains upon mixed feed. 
Similar experiments were conducted, using skim 
milk and ground grain, and although enormous 
quantities of these feeds were consumed, they suf- 
ficed only to keep the animal alive and to give it 
a small amount of growth, while animals fed much 
smaller amounts of milk and grain in connection 
with a liberal ration of hay, made a more consistent 
growth and symmetrical development of all parts 
of the body, although using a smaller total quantity 
of feed. These and other similar experiments show 
that the quantity of feed consumed by an animal 
is not necessarily an indication of its economical 



lOJ TKOFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

use, but rather that successful feeding depends upon 
the proper blending of different classes of feed. 

In the investigation and discussion of feeding 
problems, the term *' nutritive ratio " is one in 
very common use. By this term is meant the ratio 
which the total amount of digestible protein in a 
feeding ration bears to the total amount of digest- 
ible carbohydrates. The basis for computing such 
a ratio v^as found in the chemical analyses of the 
various feeds, which are now published in tabulated 
form in all books devoted exclusively to feeding 
problems. The nutritive ratio is said to be narrow 
or wide as it contains a relatively large or small 
proportion of protein. For instance, clover hay 
has a nutritive ratio of i :5.2. This means that 
there is 5.2 times as much carbohydrates as pro- 
tein in a given amount of clover hay. In skim milk 
the ratio is i :i.6t,. This represents an extremely 
narrow nutritive ratio, w^hile mangels, having a 
ratio of i :g.2, represent an unusually wide nutri- 
tive ratio. A feeding standard is simply the some- 
what arbitrary statement of the proportionate 
amounts of nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous foods 
required to effect a given purpose in feeding. 
Although feeding standards and nutritive ratios 
are published in all the works on feeding, 
they should not be regarded as an absolute and final 
guide in determining the formation of the best feed- 
ing ration for animals. There are such wide de- 
grees of variation in the composition of feeds, and 
such great individual differences in the require- 
ments of animals, that a ration which would be 
ideal under one condition, would not be well bal- 
anced under different circumstances. For in- 
stance, the composition of the corn plant varies at 
almost every stage of its growth, and varies upon 



FEEDS AND FEEDING I03 

different soils, and in different climatic conditions 
at the same stage of growth. At different periods 
before maturity, the corn plant contains a very 
large per cent of water and a correspondingly small 
proportion of feeding value. As the time of ma- 
turity approaches, the water contained becomes 
less, the materials of definite feeding value are de- 
posited both in the grain and in the leaves and 
stalk, and the feeding value consequently increases. 
Then, after harvest, the plant is likely to become 
less palatable, or is likely, through imperfect har- 
vesting and storing conditions, to lose considerable 
amounts of its nutriment, and its degree of feeding 
value will vary considerably, depending upon the 
degree of perfection reached in harvesting and stor- 
ing the crop. 

This example may be taken as typical of the vari- 
ous kinds and classes of stock foods to indicate that 
no one chemical analysis can be rigidly applied in 
determining the value of feed. The same is true 
with regard to the individual animal's capacity to 
utilize feed to the best advantage. Digestion ex- 
periments, extending over many years' time, in 
different sections of the world, have shown that 
no two animals digest exactly the same amount 
of the feed given them, and consequently no two 
can be expected to make exactly the same relative 
gains, even though they be given the same amount 
of similar feeds. Every feeder of extended expe- 
rience will recall individual animals which he has 
found it impossible to fatten. Every farmer has 
had experience with some ungainly, raw-boned 
horse, which will consume enormous quantities of 
feed and yet will always appear in poor condition 
of flesh. These instances illustrate the vast dif- 
ference in the capacity of individual animals to 



104 



TROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 



make good use of the feed given them. On ac- 
count of these differences, both in the composition 
of feed and the utilizing capacity of animals, it is 
manifestly impossible to use arbitrary feeding 
standards as an absolute guide in composition of 
rations. They should be regarded as only approx- 
imately correct for average conditions, and fairly 
close computations, made with the idea of supply- 
ing a fairly well-balanced ration, will be found all 




SOUTH DAKOTA STOCK BARN 



that is necessary for a practical feeder under aver- 
age conditions. 

The amount and kind of feed to be given to farm 
animals and the character of the ration, whether it 
should be wide, medium or narrow, depends en- 
tirely upon the object sought by feeding. Young 
growing animals of any kind and animals intended 
for breeding will manifestly require a vastly dif- 
ferent ration than those Avhich are being fed for 
slaughter. Horses which are kept through the 
winter with but little work to perform, the object 
being simply to maintain them in a fair condition 



FEEDS AND FEEDING I05 

of flesh, will require very different treatment than 
when performing hard labor. The ration suitable 
for dairy cows when being fed for high milk pro- 
duction would not be the most profitable feeding 
practice for animals being fattened for market. 

OBJECT SOUGHT DETERMINES FEEDS 

The first consideration in planning a system of 
feeding for any period should be the object for 
which the feeding is done. Another consideration is 
the class of feeds available in each individual in- 
stance. It is a comparatively easy matter to figure 
out a well-balanced ration if the feeder has at his 
command an unlimited variety of feeds. The aver- 
age feeder is not situated under these conditions. 
The farmer of the midde West has corn, clover hay 
and corn stover, as well as blue grass and other 
pastures. Naturally, he wishes to use these home- 
grown grains and fodders to the best advantage, 
and to purchase from outside sources the minimum 
amount of feeding material. How best to combine 
these available feeds so as to produce the most 
economical results is the question of most moment 
to the average farmer and stockman. 

For conditions in the corn belt it is probable that 
clover or alfalfa hay and shelled corn constitute the 
basis for the most economical ration for fattening 
cattle, sheep or horses. At the Nebraska exper- 
iment station, four years of experiments demon- 
strated that prairie hay, when fed alone with corn 
to fatten cattle, produced small and unsatisfactory 
gains, and little or no profit, while alfalfa hay with 
corn alone produced large and profitable gains. The 
advantage of the latter ration lies in the fact that 
alfalfa hay contains a very large proportion of pro- 



I06 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

tein, while corn is very rich in carbohydrates. 
These two happen to be combined in such pro- 
portions as to form a nearly perfectly balanced 
ration. They furnish about an ideal proportion of 
the materials demanded by the digestive system of 
the cattle for building up fat and muscular tissue 
rapidly. 

While alfalfa hay is beyond all question the best 
forage crop known, several other leguminous plants 
are classed as close seconds and can be substituted 
in this ration with excellent results. AMiere for any 
reason it is not possible or practical to grow alfalfa, 
then clover or cowpeas can be substituted. In the 
eastern part of the Mississippi valley region, clover 
will be found much more commonly than alfalfa. 
However, in the larger part of the clover-growing 
region of the United States and a very considerable 
part of the alfalfa-producing belt, corn is also a 
leading crop, and feeders naturally desire to utilize 
in some way, the tremendous tonnage of forage 
which is produced by the corn plant. Corn cut in 
good season and carefully shocked, furnishes tre- 
mendous amounts of excellent fodder and most 
farmers wash to utilize this in their feeding opera- 
tions, both to avoid waste of good feed and in order 
to work up this material into fit condition to be 
returned as fertilizer to the soil. If, however, corn 
stover be depended upon entirely for forage, and 
corn for the grain portion of the ration, it will 
readily be seen that the feed w'ill have too great a 
proportion of carbohydrates and not enough of 
protein. This will give a one-sided or unbalanced 
ration and the best gains w'ill not be procured. 
What this ration obviously needs is the addition of 
some feed containing a large percentage of protein. 
If a feeder has some clover or alfalfa to mix with 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 10/ 

the corn stover, it will serve to balance the ration. 
If not, this need may be supplied by bran, linseed 
meal or cottonseed meal. These feeds have a high 
protein content, and fed in relatively small amounts 
with the corn, will supply the elements in which 
the exclusive corn ration is deficient. This same 
general principle would hold equally true in fat- 
tening sheep or in feeding horses. It will hold 
equally true where timothy hay or sorghum be 
substituted for corn stover. On the other hand, 
in some of the western valleys alfalfa is raised in 
great abundance and all of the grains raised, such 
as barley and oats, also have a high protein con- 
tent. This leaves the feeder of the mountain val- 
leys with the problem of supplying carbohydrates 
to form a more perfectly balanced ration. He meets 
this by either shipping in corn from the eastern 
states, or by feeding sugar beets, which contain a 
high per cent of carbohydrates, or by utilizing 
waste molasses and other by-products of the sugar 
factory. 

If a feeder of any experience nows the relative 
proportion of the elements contained in each class 
of feed, he will be able to form a satisfactory feed- 
ing ration by observing the effect which different 
combinations have upon the animals. The tend- 
ency with most feeders is to give too little protein. 
They should not hesitate to purchase considerable 
amounts of concentrated protein feeds, such as oil 
meal, in cases where their home-grown crops do 
not furnish this element. These feeds may cost a 
little more per pound, but they will often be 
cheaper in the ultimate result than those capable 
of producing fat alone. It seems to matter little 
whether the protein is derived from the grain or the 
roughage. Corn fed with a leguminous hay seems 



I08 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

to give fully as good results as corn and oil meal 
or cottonseed meal fed with timothy hay or corn 
stover. The animal that has enough protein in its 
food and is young enough to make a good growth, 
will finish better, and w^ill not become " patchy " 
when fattened, like one that is fed on a less nitrog- 
enous ration. 

FEEDING INFLUENCED BY AGE 

The age at which animals are fed strongly in- 
fluences their powers of assimilation. The younger 
the animal, in general, the less the cost of gains. 
Prof. H. R. Smith says that in six different trials 
when accurate records were kept of gains and cost 
of food, it was found that during the first 12 months 
each 100 pounds increase in live weight cost $3.45 ; 
during the second 12 months, $11.50. At the Illi- 
nois experiment station at the beginning of an ex- 
periment, calves averaged 384 pounds, yearlings 
784 pounds and two-year-olds 1,032 pounds. The 
net cost of 100 pounds of gain was $4.10 on calves, 
$5.60 on yearlings and $6.60 on two-year-olds. The 
profit in beef production, however, consists not 
alone in the increased w^eight of the animal, but 
also in the enhanced value of the original carcass. 
Thus, if an 800-pound animal costs 4 cents a pound 
and after being fattened sells for 5 cents a pound, 
there is a profit of $8 on the original carcass. Where 
meat animals are grown for market, the greatest 
profit will nearly always be found in fattening as 
young as possible. If western animals are to be 
fed, however, it will often be found more profitable 
to feed the larger ones as long yearlings and two- 
year-olds, on account of the greater margin afforded 
by the heavier original weight. 



"^ FEEDS AND FEEDING IO9 

EFFECTS OF ONE-SIDED RATION 

In hog feeding these principles hold equally true 
as in the handling of cattle, sheep and horses. The 
pernicious effects of the exclusive feeding of highly- 
carbonaceous feeds is nowhere more apparent than 
in the case of hogs which have been kept for several 
generations on a single corn diet. Years ago the 
custom was much more prevalent than at present, 
of attempting to keep hogs in small pens during 
their entire period of existence and feeding them 
little or nothing but grain, and this usually meant 
corn. Immense amounts of corn were required in 
fattening animals, but in those days it was worth 
only a few cents a bushel and so there was little 
object in saving it. The effect of this kind of feed- 
ing is most noticeable upon the breeding stock, 
especially where it is continued for several genera- 
tions. Farmers who pursued this plan of hog rais- 
ing found that the second or third generation was 
seriously deficient as to type, constitution and 
vigor, and that they were no longer prolific. Sev- 
eral of the most valuable families or strains of 
hogs have been actually bred out of existence by 
this type of mismanagement. 

Contrary to this experience, those breeders who 
have sown clover or alfalfa for permanent hog pas- 
ture, and have used rape, rye or the various other 
quick-growing crops in order to keep green feed 
available for their hogs in connection with the grain 
during the greater part of the year, have always 
obtained cheap and rapid growth, have maintained 
their stock in a high state of health and vigor, and 
have made their business permanently successful. 
The secret is that the clover, or other pasture, fur- 
nished protein to ])alance up the carbohydrate con- 



no PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

tent of the corn, thus enabling the animal to make 
its growth and perform its bodily functions with- 
out so overburdening the digestive system as to 
impair health and vitality. 

MAINTENANCE RATIONS 

By a maintenance ration is meant a ration of 
such quantity and composition as to simply main- 
tain an animal in fair condition of flesh and to fur- 
nish enough nutrition to keep up body heat and 
vitality without decreasing or increasing the w^eight. 
It is often desirable to carry breeding animals 
through the winter on this basis, or to carry cattle 
which it is desired to fatten upon next season's 
grass through the winter without using a lot of 
expensive grain feed. A ration with this object in 
view will be narrower than that required for fat- 
tening animals, and will not usually require such 
judicious selection. An abundance of alfalfa or 
clover hay alone will serve very well for such pur- 
poses as these, because they contain a sufficient 
amount of fat-forming materials to keep up body 
heat and a large proportion of muscle-forming ma- 
terial to maintain the body weight. 

At the Missouri experiment station, timothy hay 
of average quality was found to be nutritious 
enough to maintain the weight of yearling steers 
throughout the winter. To do this required a little 
more than one and one-half tons to winter each 
steer weighing 750 pounds from November ist to 
April ist. Upon this basis, the steers not only 
maintained their weight, but gained about 50 
pounds during the winter. At the same station it was 
found that cured corn stover handled in the ordinary 
farm practice would not quite maintain yearling 
steers. Each animal showed a loss of 33 pounds 



FEEDS AND FEEDING III 

on the six months' feeding, even after consuming 
three tons of corn stover. A very little clover or 
a^lfalfa mixed with this corn stover would add 
enough to its feeding value to make it a good 
maintenance feed. All the rough feeds such as 
kafir corn, sorghum, millet and straw may be 
profitably utilized in wintering stock in this man- 
ner, providing a small amount of grain is available 
to assist in completing the ration. 

CONCENTRATES 

All of the grains and such feeds as bran, oil meal, 
cottonseed meal, dried blood and other packing 
house by-products, brewers' grains, in fact all feeds 
having small bulk and high feeding value, are 
termed concentrates. It is frequently possible by 
the purchase of relatively small amounts of some 
one or another of these feeds to so complete the 
ration as to get high returns out of the rough forage 
of the farm, which alone would not serve even as a 
good maintenance ration. Farmers are usually 
loath to purchase these products on account of their 
seeming high price per pound, but when the rela- 
tively high feeding value is considered in compari- 
son with that of some of the home-grown products, 
it will be seen that good value is received, in spite 
of the high initial cost. Especially in maintaining 
young animals where the greatest and most vigor- 
ous growth is desired, it will never pay to feed an 
inferior ration, when a purchase of small amounts 
of concentrated protein will so greatly improve the 
ration. Growth which is lost at this time in the 
life of young animals can never be regained no 
matter how well cared for they are later. The 
stunted animal never acquires the quality which it 
would have had, had its growth been continuous. 



112 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

SUCCULENT FEEDS 

The one factor in the feeding of animals which 
is most likely to be overlooked or ignored by the 
American farmer is that of some kind of a suc- 
culent or juicy feed to be used in connection with 
the dry hay and grain. English and Scotch farm- 
ers, who produce the finest specimens of sheep and 
cattle known in the world todav, have for o^enera- 
tions emphasized the need of feeds of this character 
and have constantly used root crops and juicy 
feeds of various kinds in feeding their animals at 
all times of the year when green grass is not avail- 
able. Good green grass in itself is practically a 
balanced ration, and ordinarily needs nothing ad- 
ditional, unless the stock is being fed for slaughter. 
In addition to the actual food constituents con- 
tained in grass, it has also a large per cent of juice 
or water, and the function of succulent feeds for 
winter is to supply this condition as nearly as pos- 
sible in dry feeds used in the winter time. This 
can be supplied in some form under almost all 
American farm conditions, but it is safe to say that 
upon 90 per cent of the farms where live stock is 
kept in America, no special provision is made for 
feeds of this character. This class of feed may 
consist of root crops, such as beets, mangels or 
turnips ; it may consist of silage or wet brewers' 
grains or pulp from the sugar beet factories. The 
only places where it is extensively used are in 
dairies of the East and middle \\'est where the silo 
is now considered almost indispensable, and in the 
immediate vicinity of beet sugar factories where 
the pulp is easily available. The value of succulent 
feed is hard to determine, and it is hard to point out 
just from whence this value comes. For instance. 



FEEDS AND FEEDING II3 

a chemical analysis of beet pulp shows a very small 
per cent of digestible material of any sort in it, 
the solid portion consisting principally of wood fiber 
or cellulose. There is a trifling amount of sugar 
and a small per cent of digestible protein, yet cattle 
and sheep fed upon corn, alfalfa and beet pulp will 
make immensely better gains than when fed upon 
corn and alfalfa, even though in greater amounts. 
The value is probably in its beneficial efifect upon 
the digestive system of the animal, which enables 
it to make better use of the corn and hay consumed 
and to transform a larger percentage of it into fat 
and muscle. 

Of course silage, especially corn silage, has a 
definite feeding value aside from its succulent char- 
acteristics, and is used not only in maintaining but 
in fattening cattle, to excellent advantage. The 
number of feeders at the present time who provide 
silage for their fattening stock is very small, but its 
use seems to be increasing. Where it is available 
there is no better feed in winter for fattening cattle. 
They may be given from lo to 12 pounds daily per 
head. Experiments at Purdue university proved 
that corn silage was very satisfactory in fattening 
steers where a nitrogenous concentrate such as 
cottonseed meal was used with it. Silage-fed 
steers fed better, made more rapid and cheaper 
gains, acquired a higher finish and returned a 
greater profit than similar cattle fed under identical 
conditions without silage. The best financial re- 
sults obtained at Purdue have been from cattle fed 
on shelled corn, cottonseed meal and corn silage. 
These cattle, after paying for all the other feed, 
returned 96.7 cents per bushel for all the corn con- 
sumed. 

Too much feed is wasted on the averasfe 



114 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

American farm. The amount of first-class fodder 
which goes to waste every year in the corn fields 
of the Mississippi valley, if preserved either as 
forage or silage, would support many thousands of 
additional meat animals, which are now so sorely 
needed in the markets of the country. IMuch ma- 
terial that is now little valued really has definite 
feeding value, and ought to be utilized as such. 
There are annually many thousands of bushels of 
soft corn produced on account of unfavorable 
weather conditions, early frosts and other causes. 
There is a common idea that soft corn, and like- 
wise light oats are very poor feed. The amounts 
fed of either should be measured by weight, not 
by bulk, and with soft corn the basis of computa- 
tion should be its dry matter. It seems to be a 
general principle that dififerent grades and qualities 
of corn and of oats, really have practically the same 
feeding value for each pound of dry matter, pro- 
vided the grain has not been injured by mold or 
decay. The Iowa experiment station discovered in 
feeding corn of the 1902 crop to cattle, that a pound 
of dry matter in soft corn was practically equal to a 
pound of dry matter in sound corn for feeding to 
fattening steers. The New Hampshire experiment 
station has recently discovered that pound for 
pound, light oats are only a possible shade inferior 
to heavy oats for horse feeding. The real feeding 
value of grain of this character is greater than 
farmers generally suppose. 

Many American farmers are raising grain with 
the fixed intention of hauling it to the elevator for 
sale. Every crop removed thus from the farm de- 
tracts just that much from the available fertility of 
the soil, because that much material is gone and 
can never be regained except by direct purchase. 



FEEDS AND FEEDING II5 

The average farmer has too little appreciation of 
the value of the grain and forage he produces for 
live stock feeding purposes. He is too willing to 
abandon live stock production and feeding as un- 
profitable, because, for the moment, grain growing 
seems more attractive. He needs a keener appre- 
ciation of the feeding value of the different crops 
possible for him to grow, of the profits which care- 
ful breeding and intelligent feeding of farm animals 
will bring him, and of the cumulative effect pro- 
duced upon his soil by a continued application to 
it of the manure produced by this live stock in con- 
suming the corn stover, straw, hay and grain which 
he can grow. The live stock breeder should in- 
form himself of the principles which underly 
this science, and should develop an accurate appre- 
ciation of the values of different kinds of feed. He 
should be able to know when the products grown 
upon his farm are insufficient for the needs of the 
growing animal, and what he should produce to 
supply this deficiency. He should be able to judge 
when it will be profitable for him to purchase high- 
priced concentrates, and just what the character 
of these concentrates should be. It pays for nearly 
every farm to produce a sufficient variety of feed- 
ing material to furnish a well balanced ration. This 
is especially true in all regions where it is possible 
to raise corn, because here also in nearly every in- 
stance it is possible to raise clover and alfalfa. 
Close attention to the needs of animals under dif- 
ferent conditions and full information as to the 
kinds of forage and grain which will most fully and 
most economically supply these needs is the basic 
information without which successful feeding on an 
intelligent basis will be found impossible. 



CHAPTER X 

Profit from the Dairy 

MAGNITUDE OF DAIRY INDUSTRY 

The dairy industry in the United States is of 
much greater magnitude than is apparent to the 
average observer. The most reliable figures avail- 
able in 1910 place the total number of dairy cows 
in the United States at 21,801,000, having a total 
farm value of more than $780,000,000. The dairy 
products have an annual value closely approximat- 
ing $800,000,000. This is greater than the value of 
any farm crop, except corn, \^^len the dairy out- 
put is combined with the valuation of dairy stock it 
represents a total of more than $1,500,000,000. This 
represents more investment than all the meat cattle 
of the land, together with the hogs and sheep. It 
is an industry that tends to intensify farming 
methods. Where people are obliged to live on small 
farms and closely together, it is found necessary, in 
order to keep up the required land fertility and 
utilize in the most economical way the farm forage 
products. It is one of the factors which enters most 
strongly into the great question of conserving soil 
fertility. Where butter is made and sold from the 
farm practically no soil fertility leaves, but on the 
contrary, the farm is made richer. 

It requires a frugal, industrious people for this 
work, as it means steady employment and careful, 
painstaking methods. AVhere grain is raised ex- 
clusively, the labor is confined to a few months in 
each year, but in the dairy business employment is 

U6 



PROFIT FROM THE DAIRY II7 

constant. It advances the value of land, and being 
economical in its nature can be carried on where 
land values are so high that most of the common 
farm practices must be abandoned. For example, 
in Denmark where the people live closely together 
on small farms, the dairy business is found most 
fully developed. From this little country every 
year is sold over $40,000,000 worth of butter, and 
the government considers it so important that not 
less than 16 dairy schools are maintained in this 
small area. It is one of the best means of con- 
densing our farm crops and raw material into a 
product which is worth more per pound than any 
other sold from the farm. For example, butter pro- 
duced in the central part of America can be mar- 
keted in any part of the world. The rough fodders 
and grasses of our farms can be concentrated into 
a condensed form which will require a very light 
tax to market in distant lands. It is an industry 
that thrives where knowledge and science are ap- 
plied. No industry, perhaps, requires this more 
than the dairy business. It is an industry of the 
people. It is not one that is hampered by trust 
or consolidation, but is enjoyed by every farmer 
of the land who wishes to engage in the enterprise. 
May it always be so preserved ! 

FIELDS FOR IMPROVEMENT 

There are two great fields for improvement, 
namely, to raise the annual production of our cows 
and to improve the quality of the products. In 
these two fields, perhaps, the most important is the 
first, and could the annual product of the American 
cow be advanced a few pounds of butter per year, 
it would bring a vast fortune to our producers. 
This improvement is going on rapidly, and prom^ 



Il8 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

ises to accomplish much during the next few years. 
For example, the Nebraska experiment station has 
a cow which has produced 17,000 pounds of milk 
and 650 pounds of butter. The average cow pro- 
duces about 3,000 pounds of milk and 100 pounds 
of butter. It will be seen that this good cow is 
equal to six average animals in production. Now, 
it is possible to develop such animals. A daughter 
of this cow, which is called Katy Gerben, has 
equaled her mother in the milk and butter record, 
and here promises a family which can produce such 
records. Better care of the stock we now have 
would, without doubt, increase the annual produc- 
tion 30 per cent ; this, with wise selection of the 
young animals, would, in a short time, double the 
output with the same number of cows. 

The quality of the product is of vast importance, 
and could we produce such butter as the Danes are 
making, we would be able to obtain possession of 
the English market, which would bring to our 
nation forty or fifty million dollars per year. If 
we could improve the quality of our cheese it 
would save a vast amount of money and give us a 
foreign market for our surplus make. During the 
past decade great improvements have been made 
in the methods of assembling and manufacturing 
the products. The centrifugal separator brought a 
revolution to the dairy world, and made possible 
the creaming of milk in an economical manner and 
in a short space of time. 

The milking machine is now deemed a success, 
and all it requires is a little time to place it in gen- 
eral use. There are at the present time over 1,000 
milking machines in operation in this country, and 
from reports by the users there is good evidence 
that they are giving satisfaction. With this ma- 



PROFIT FROM THE DAIRY IIQ 

chine the labor problem, which is one of the vexing 
features of dairying, will be greatly simplified. 

The butter accumulator is now also receiving 
much attention. This machine takes the fresh milk 
and turns it into butter, skim milk and buttermilk 
in a few minutes. The Babcock test made a revo- 
lution and brought untold good to the dairy world. 
It has made possible the finding in a few minutes 
of the value of the dairy products, and is the means 
of obtaining the value of milk and cream as sold 
to the general market. 

With all that has been accomplished and the 
bright future so full of encouragement with good 
things to come, still there is a vast field for im- 
provement. Through the broad land the rank and 
file of cow keepers are failing in what we term 
successful dairying. This failure is due to the few 
undone little things about the dairy. It is those 
most talked of and written about, but still foreign 
to the masses, who, at least, do not carry them out 
in practice. Sharp competition may in time bring 
about an improvement, through sheer necessity for 
more profit. 

TYPES OF DAIRYING 

The dairy industry of the United States may be 
divided roughly into two general types, one of 
which has for its object the furnishing of fresh milk 
for domestic use to people living in towns and 
cities. The other type is concerned in the produc- 
tion of milk to be used in the manufacture of butter 
and cheese either on a small scale upon the farm 
or on a larger scale by centralized creameries. 
Which one of these types it is most practical to 
follow depends almost entirely upon the geograph- 
ical location. It can readily be seen that farms 



120 TROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

remotely removed from cities or farms not readily 
accessible to quick transportation facilities, could 
not produce milk for city markets. The milk used 
for domestic purposes in such large consuming 
centers as Chicago, for instance, is all produced 
within an approximate radius of lOO miles from the 
city, and except under unusually favorable trans- 
portation conditions, it will not be profitable to 
ship milk much further than this. 

The other type of dairying, on the contrary, can 
be conducted upon any farm which is producing 
the necessary feed for carrying on dairy operations. 
Nearly every farm in the middle West and North- 
west conducts a dairy of some sort or other. Since 
the introduction into nearly every farm home of 
the hand separator, the production of cream for 
sale to large butter-making concerns has materially 
increased. By the use of these machines it is pos- 
sible for the farmer to secure the available butter 
fat from the fresh milk within a very few minutes 
after milking, and use the sweet, warm skim milk 
for feeding calves or pigs. The cream is then sold 
either to the local creamery or to representatives 
of some of the large buttermaking concerns, and a 
definite, monthly income is thus assured. Fresh, 
wholesome skim milk secured by this process can 
be so judiciously fed as to develop calves equally 
as good as though they had been allowed to follow 
their dams. This fact has been taken advantage 
of in recent years by thousands of farmers who 
originally kept cattle only for the increase. Under 
this system, by milking the cows and raising the 
calves to be finished later for beef, they are able to 
have two sources of revenue, while the old system 
gave them only one. 

The production of milk for the city market 



PROFIT FROM THE DAIRY 121 

usually demands cows of a pronounced dairy type. 
Such breeds as the Jerseys, Guernseys and Hol- 
steins, which have been bred for hundreds of years 
exclusively for dairy purposes, are unquestionably 
the most profitable animals to keep for this pur- 
pose. A great many farmers say that for any type 
of dairying the dairy breeds are the only profitable 
type of cows to keep. On the other hand, in the 
middle western country, there are thousands of 
farmers whose circumstances demand that the fin- 
ishing of live stock shall constitute the leading fea- 
ture of their farm practice. They have a good deal 
of pasture, and their farms produce enormous 
amounts of forage and grain. These they do not 
wish to sell in the market because of considerations 
relating to soil fertility. For various reasons, chief 
among them the increasingly perplexing proposi- 
tion of farm labor, they are unable or unwilling to 
change their type of farming to exclusive dairying. 
Yet, upon their high-priced land, they do not think 
that they are justified in keeping large numbers of 
breeding cattle merely for the production of calves. 
These conditions place them under the necessity 
of keeping a type of animals from which reasonable 
returns can be realized in dairy operations, and 
which will also produce a type of offspring 
well suited to being fattened for beef. These con- 
ditions have given rise to a strong demand on the 
part of many American farmers, for a dual purpose 
type of cattle. The so-called dual purpose breeds 
are Red Polls, the milking Shorthorn, the Brown 
Swiss and the Devon. Of these, the milking Short- 
horn and Red Poll are most common upon American 
farms, and it is probable that the milking strains 
of Shorthorns are by far the most popular. These 
cattle produce calves of very good beef type, 



122 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

and at the same time are heavy milkers. Rose, a 
Shorthorn cow owned by N. G. Simpson of New 
Hampshire, has a record of ii,ooo pounds of milk 
produced in one year. Another has a record of 
9,550 pounds of milk, from which were made 448 
pounds of butter. Still another produced 60 
pounds of milk, making 2 pounds 12^ ounces of 
butter, in 24 hours. While these records are by no 
means equal to the production of famous cows of 
the dairy breeds, still they show that profitable 
dairying is possible with the best type of dual pur- 
pose stock imder conditions which seem suited to 
this type of dairying. 

The farmer should use his best judgment in de- 
termining whether his surroundings justify an ex- 
clusive dairy industry, or whether his conditions 
will demand a more mixed type of farming, and 
then direct his entire energy toward securing and 
breeding the very best animals of the particular 
type upon which he decides. If he is just starting 
in the business, he had better begin with a few good 
cows and gradually work up until the carrying 
capacity of his farm is reached, rather than start too 
heavily and later have to decrease his numbers on 
account of having too little feed. The crying need 
of dairying inAmerica today is not for more dairy 
cows but for better ones. The feed which it re- 
quires to support our 21,000,000 dairy cows ought 
to produce at least twice the amount of dairy prod- 
ucts that it does. There is a smaller degree of 
efficiency in cow^s used in milk production in the 
United States than in any other class of live stock. 

CONSIDERATIONS OF EFFICIENCY 

What are some of the means by which the pro- 
ducing capacity of the dairy herds can be increased? 



PROFIT FROM THE DAIRY 123 

Intelligent selection, breeding and keeping accu- 
rate records of each cow's production, use of the 
Babcock tester in determining the amount of butter 
fat contained in each cow's milk and the prompt 
elimination from the herd of all cows not producing 
milk in paying quantities, will go a long way 
toward this end. A careful and systematic test- 
ing for disease, so that no animals will be kept 
which are not in perfect physical condition, will 
stop a great deal more waste. A keen appreciation 
of the principles of feeding and the use in the 
dairy of feeds and feeding methods calculated to 
stimulate milk production to its highest point, 
will be found not the least important detail to be 
considered. 

The farmer, first of all, must have a definite idea 
of what constitutes dairy type in cows, and then 
select such breeding stock as most nearly conform 
to this ideal. It is folly to maintain for exclusive 
dairy purposes a cow of marked beef type. There 
is as much difference between the dairy type and 
the beef type as there is between a draft horse 
and a racer. The farmer should familiarize 
himself with these points of difference and 
make use of them in choosing his foundation 
stock. In his breeding operations he should 
constantly select as the animals which he in- 
tends to keep not only the best appearing in- 
dividuals in his herd, but those which are the off- 
spring of cows having satisfactory dairy records. 
These cows he will know because of the tests he 
has made to determine their milk and butter pro- 
duction. By selecting foundation stock in this way 
and by rearing the best offspring, a paying herd, 
producing high-grade milk may be built up in a 
comparatively short time. 



124 



PROFITABLE STOCK IL\ISING 



Never before has the importance of cutting out 
and disposing of the unprofitable cows from the 
herd been more prominent than at the present time. 
It is not a difficult matter to determine whether a 
herd is profitable or not or whether any individual 
in the herd is profitable. It can be readily seen 
that if a man has three cows which produce enough 
milk to pay a liberal margin of profit over the 




MODERN DAIRY HOUSE 



amount of feed they receive, and three others, 
which give an equal amount less than the value of 
their feed, the deficiency of the latter three simply 
balances the good qualities of the former three, and 
eliminates any possible profit from the whole herd. 
The three poor producers not only do not pay for 
their own board, but are dependent upon the good 
qualities of the profitable three in order to make 
the books balance. In order to determine which 
individuals are boarders and which are dividend 
payers, it is only necessary to weigh each day the 
milk of each cow, and to occasionally test for butter 



PROFIT FROM THE DAIRY 1^5 

fat samples of each cow's milk. There are numer- 
ous handy devices for weighing milk and keeping 
a record for each cow which can be secured at 
trifling cost from any dealer in dairy supplies, while 
the use of the Babcock tester is so simple and so 
well known that it needs no comment. By using 
these devices and keeping a fairly accurate record 
of the feed consumed, one can readily determine 
which cow should be culled out from the herd. 
Not only will this elimination of profitless stock 
prove a direct benefit in the saving of feed and 
labor, but the herd will be greatly improved, and 
the offspring from the selected cows, if sired by a 
male of known breeding quality, will be worth 
several hundred per cent more than those from an 
untested herd. 

CO-OPERATIVE IMPROVEMENT 

In some of the most progressive dairy sections 
of the United States, recent years have developed 
so keen a realization of the necessity for intelligent 
breeding and for careful testing that co-operative 
breeding associations and cow-testing associations 
have been formed. These have almost invariably 
proved successful and have been the means of 
tremendously increasing the efficiency of the dairy 
stock in every section where they have been given 
careful trials. The general plan of a co-operative 
breeding association requires that a number of 
farmers living reasonably near together, purchase 
pure-bred bulls with which to head their herds. 
Sometimes several farmers may combine in getting 
the same animal if their circumstances and location 
seem to justify this. A farmer or group of farmers 
somewhere in the neighborhood may purchase an- 
other pure-bred bull. By combining their resources 



126 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

in this manner they are able to spend more money 
and secure a better individual than they would 
otherwise have done. At the end of two years at 
most, it is always customary for a breeder to get rid 
of his herd bull and purchase one of different family 
in order to avoid inbreeding-, or a too close relation- 
ship between these families. The members of the 
co-operative breeding association always arrange to 
make their original purchases from diflferent strains 
of stock, so that when the necessity for this change 
arises, they simply trade bulls. This plan serves 
to keep in the one community valuable animals 
which under the old plan would probably have been 
shipped to distant points. It prevents needless ex- 
penditure and duplication of animals and has proved 
very satisfactory in its effect of constantly up- 
building a class of stock not only for individuals 
but for entire communities. 

Co-operative testing associations usually consist 
of about 26 members each. They pay a stated sum 
per month, depending upon the number of cows each 
has, the money going to pay the salary of a man 
whose business it is to test each herd once a month. 
This is planned on the basis of one herd for each 
working day, but in case the members live so closely 
together that it would be possible to test two herds 
or more a day, the number of members can be in- 
creased, and the cost per member decreased ac- 
cordingly. Each member keeps for himself the 
weight of milk per cow for each day, but turns the 
card over to the representative of the association 
upon his arrival. This representative is equipped 
with a Babcock tester and the necessary chemicals 
for making a test, and is furnished with samples of 
the milk of each cow. This does away with the 
trouble and work incidental to taking care of the 



PROFIT FROM THE DAIRY 127 

records and provides a reliable guide for the farmer 
in determining which of his cows should be elim- 
inated from the herd. 

Careful selection, intelligent breeding and con- 
tinual discrimination in culling out unprofitable in- 
dividuals are essential to the most satisfactory type 
of dairying, but these in themselves, no matter how 
faithfully followed, will not bring results to the 
farmer. The dairy cow is a highly developed ma- 
chine for transforming grain and forage into milk 
and dairy products. It will be necessary to fur- 
nish her with all the feed she can consume, and it 
will be further necessary that this feed should be 
so selected and furnished in such proportions as 
to enable her to produce the greatest possible 
amount of milk and the greatest possible amount 
of butter fat. An engine cannot be expected to 
develop its full amount of power unless plenty of 
fuel is furnished, and it is no more reasonable to 
expect a cow to accomplish her greatest produc- 
tion unless she is heavily and intelligently fed. 

SILOS AND SILAGE 

In these days, when one hears the word dairy, 
he thinks of a silo. Under the present conditions, 
when land in the dairy districts is extremely high 
in price, and when all the feeds used in dairying are 
in strong market demand and correspondingly valu- 
able, it is scarcely possible to realize the maximum 
profits from the dairy without using a silo in which 
to store a cheap supply of efHcient feed. The corn 
crop furnishes by all odds the best feed for use in 
a silo. The heavy tonnage makes it possible to 
raise enough corn to fill a large silo upon a com- 
paratively small area of land, while the large 
amount of nourishing grain contained in this crop 



128 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

at the time it is cut for silage adds materially to its 
feeding value. There is no question that corn sil- 
age and alfalfa hay, fed together, form the most 
ideal combination known for dairy feeding. Where 
alfalfa is not produced, bright well-cured clover or 
cowpeas w^ill do nearly as well. Alfalfa will, to a 
great extent, take the place of bran in a ration on 
account of its high protein content. Careful, con- 
servative dairymen who have kept accurate account 
of the results obtained from dififerent feeds, state 
that rather than be without alfalfa hay in winter 
they would pay $20 a ton for it. The cheapest com- 
bination ever used by the Nebraska experiment sta- 
tion in producing milk and butter consisted of 100 
tons of alfalfa hay fed in connection with 125 tons 
of corn silage. This was fed during the winter to 
40 cows, which averaged over 400 pounds of 
butter each. 

It will scarcely pay a man to engage in any form 
of agriculture without fairly satisfactory equipment 
with which to perform his work. This is especially 
true of dairying. After reasonably good stock has 
been secured, undoubtedly the most valuable and 
nearly indispensable article of dairy equipment is 
the silo. The cost is so trifling when compared 
with the advantages to be derived as to be a matter 
of little or no consideration. It may be said to be 
indispensable to the most profitable dairy practice 
under all conditions except in sections of the south 
w^here green feed is available at all periods of the 
year. 

Just what feeds the dairyman shall use, depends 
very largely, of course, upon the local conditions 
under which he works. !Many men who are en- 
gaged in producing milk for city markets have only 
a small piece of land and are not able to raise large 



PROFIT FROM THE DAIRY 1 29 

amounts of forage of such bulky nature as clover 
or alfalfa hay. Under these conditions, their best 
plan is probably to raise all the corn they can for 
silage and then purchase in the markets their pro- 
tein feed. The silage will furnish succulence and 
bulk to the ration, and will supply all, or nearly all, 
of the carbohydrates needed, but milk production 
requires especially large quantities of protein. This 
can be supplied in the form of bran, linseed meal, 
cottonseed meal, brewers' grain and various manu- 
factured feeds which are sold under a guarantee as 
to their protein contents. 

In recent years the alfalfa-growing districts in 
the far West have built up a considerable industry 
in grinding alfalfa hay into the form of meal, which 
is shipped in sacks and can be used the same as 
bran as concentrated protein. Where the very best 
quality of this is obtainable, its feeding value as a 
concentrate is nearly, or quite, equal to that of 
bran. In many of the semi-arid districts of the far 
West dairying is depended upon in considerable de- 
gree for the family income. In many of these 
regions they do not raise much alfalfa or other 
leguminous hay. Their forages consist of millet, 
sorghum and corn fodder. Few, if any, have as yet 
even thought of building silos, yet it is possible for 
them to feed a fairly satisfactory dairy ration by 
mixing with their carbonaceous forages liberal 
proportions of oats, barley or other nitrogenous 
grains. The great fault with a dairy ration of this 
character is that it lacks succulence, and this qual- 
ity in the feed is one of the prime requisites in the 
most successful type of dairying. Silage furnishes 
succulence along with its other desirable qualities. 
Root crops also serve this purpose very well, but 
should be finely chopped or sliced when fed to 



130 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

COWS, in order to avoid the danger of choking. 
Pasture grass, either the blue grass of the East 
and South or the nutritious wild grasses found in 
the \\^est, form an almost ideal all-around feed for 
the dairy. There are, however, only two or three 
months of the year when these grasses are at their 
best, and supplementary feeding is required for the 
largest results during the greater portion of the 
year. Another disadvantage of pasturing, espe- 
cially upon high-priced land, is its wastefulness. 
The necessity for the economical utilization of all 
the feed raised on a farm under intensive condi- 
tions has led to the system of feeding known as 
soiling. This plan requires keeping the cows in a 
barn, or in relatively small lots, at all times, and 
cutting green growing crops such as rye, rape, 
clover or other suitable plants each day and feeding 
in just such quantities as are required. This does 
away with wastefulness of pasturing and enables 
the keeping of a larger number of animals than 
could otherwise be done. The silo can be used in 
connection with soiling, to very good advantage, 
or it can be used in connection with pasturing by 
providing a supply of the summer silage to use 
when the grass gets short and dry during the latter 
part of the summer. One of the most successful 
dairymen in Illinois cuts from five to seven acres 
of rye and clover in June and chops it finely in his 
silage cutter, packs it in the silo for summer use, 
and finishes feeding it out only just before the corn 
silage is available in the fall. He states that he 
finds this the most profitable crop of his entire farm. 

NEEDS OF MILK PRODUCTION 

Whatever feeds are given and whatever is the 
feeding practice, it should always be borne in mind 



PROFIT FROM THE DAIRY I3I 

that milk production requires lots of protein, and 
that maximum milk production requires a succulent 
feed. The greatest profits from dairying are not 
possible without the strictest attention to the needs 
of the cow in planning her ration. 

The dairy industry, so' far as it relates to the 
production of milk, is rapidly undergoing a revolu- 
tion. The changes demanded by the boards of 
health must necessarily increase the cost of pro- 
duction somewhat, although not to the extent of 
making dairying unprofitable, under conditions of 
reasonable farm efficiency. Many of the careless 
methods which have been sanctioned in the past 
must go. What is required from the present 
day standpoint? In few words, the demand is for 
clean, healthy cows, well-lighted, well-ventilated 
clean and airy stables, tight, sound floors, clean, 
healthy attendants, clean utensils, prompt removal 
and cooling of the milk in a proper room used ex- 
clusively for the purpose, and storage at a tem- 
perature below 60 degrees. The use of the small 
top milk pail cannot be too strongly recommended 
in eliminating dirt and bacteria. In one instance, 
where a study was made of this point, it was found 
that where the ordinary open pail was used, the 
bacterial count was 3,439,000 per cubic centimeter, 
as compared with 6,600 with the small top pail. 
The use of the damp cloth in wiping the udders 
and flanks of the cows before milking is very im- 
portant in reducing the bacterial count. It was 
found that where this was practiced in one instance, 
the number of bacteria in the milk was 716 per cubic 
centimeter, as compared with 7,058 per cubic centi- 
meter where the moist cloth was not used. 

Public opinion is yearly becoming more insistent 
in its demands for elimination of infectious diseases 



132 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

from herds furnishing' milk for public use. This 
refers especially to tuberculosis. It is unfortunately 
a fact that many thousands of cows which now fur- 
nish milk to the cities are in various stages of this 
disease. There is no longer any doubt that it is 
possible for this scourge to be communicated to 
human beings through the medium of milk. The 
time is near at hand when those dairymen who do 
not voluntarily clean up their herds by means of 
the tuberculin test, will be compelled to do so by 
force of public opinion expressed through ordi- 
nances and state laws. This elimination of tuber- 
cular cows will not prove the hardship that it 
seems. It is inconceivable that a cow suffering 
from this disease in any advanced form, can pos- 
sibly be a paying proposition to the dairyman. The 
disease will have so impaired her efficiency as a milk 
producer that, in a great majority of cases, she will 
not be paying for the feed she consumes. A care- 
ful test of dairy cows suffering from this disease 
would undoubtedly demonstrate this fact. 

Good dairy barns are one of the requirements for 
profits in this business. These barns are as neces- 
sary to protect the cows from heat and flies in sum- 
mer as from cold and exposure in winter. Just 
what the type of barn shall be depends upon the 
taste of the farmer, and upon the money he wishes 
to invest in the building. This much should be 
common to all barns : that perfect ventilation 
should be provided in some manner so that the 
stock need not be exposed to the direct action of 
cold winds in winter. It is not desirable to have 
the barn uncomfortably warm in cold weather, but 
rather to have a reasonable temperature and fresh, 
pure air at all times of the day and night. The 
problem of keeping a dairy barn clean and free from 



PROFIT FROM THE DAIRY 



133 



dust and obnoxious odors which are readily ab- 
sorbed by milk is one of the difficult phases of this 
business. The problem of affording sufficient pro- 
tection, and at the same time giving cows enough 
exercise and enough pure air to keep them in health- 
ful condition, is a grave one. The closely built, 
tightly closed dairy barns of the East and middle 
West have undoubtedly been responsible for the 
development and spread of tuberculosis in a large 




A MICHIGAN DAIRY BARN AND SILO 



number of valuable herds in that region. Ventila- 
tion is a phase which has always received too little 
attention at the hands of the farmer. 

A type of barn or shelter for dairy stock which 
seems very satisfactory, not only in protecting the 
animals and maintaining their health, but also in 
reducing materially the amount of labor required 
in caring for them, is found in a sort of covered 
barnyard. This consists of a covered yard or room 
where the cows are allowed to run loose in winter 
and has only a few stalls in which the cows are 
fastened while being milked. This suffices equally 
as well where milking machines are used as where 



134 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

hand milking is done. The relative cheapness of a 
structure of this sort makes it possible to give each 
animal a large amount of room and a large amount 
of air space. Movable racks are placed at con- 
venient intervals for containing the feed for the 
cows, and they are allowed to help themselves, 
except to the concentrated feeds, which are given 
during milking time. By this method most of the 
manure is deposited near the feed racks and is so 
thoroughly tramped and mixed with straw or other 
litter furnished for bedding as to practically ex- 
clude air. Little or no heating takes place, and 
there is no loss of fertility through leaching or any 
of the processes which take place when the manure 
is piled in heaps in the open air. 

The problem of keeping the cows clean is a sim- 
ple one and consists in supplying plenty of bedding. 
Straw is usually very cheap and can be had in un- 
limited amounts under most conditions. Shredded 
corn fodder also makes an excellent bedding for 
cows, and is used wnth great success by some dairy- 
men for this purpose. After the cows have eaten 
all of the fodder they will, there will be consider- 
able quantities left which are not edible, but which 
will make very good bedding. It has great ab- 
sorbent properties and is especially desirable on 
this account. Cows managed in a yard of this kind 
will undoubtedly have better health, because they 
are free to move about, receive more air and have 
access to water as they desire instead of stated in- 
tervals. Air, sunlight and cleanliness are essential 
in every dairy barn of whatever type. 

ILLINOIS DAIRY EXPERIENCE 

The question of the returns from market dairy- 
ing, or the making of milk for the city markets, is 



PROFIT FROM THE DAIRY 135 

one which has attracted much interest and discus- 
sion within recent years in all the large dairy sec- 
tions of the country. This is especially true in the 
dairy districts which furnish the milk supply of 
Chicago. Farmers, on one hand, claim that the high 
cost of feed and labor has made the production of 
milk at present prices unprofitable, or at best given 
only a narrow margin of profit. The distributors 
say that the increased cost of handling the milk, 
due to more stringent sanitary regulations, as well 
as to the general increase in labor and other ex- 
pense items, has made it imperative that they re- 
ceive more money. 

This contention between the producer and the 
distributor has resulted in the formation of associa- 
tions among the farmers calculated to insist upon 
higher wholesale prices. Whether or not any ap- 
preciable gain will come to the farmer through agi- 
tation, it is certain that somebody was getting i cent 
per quart more for milk in 1910 than in 1909, be- 
cause the consumer had to pay 8 cents then, instead 
of the 7 cents formerly demanded. 

There is no question that the expense of pro- 
ducing milk has risen very materially and much 
out of proportion to any trifling increase farmers 
may have received for their product. However this 
may be, there are dairymen who have made profits 
even under the most unfavorable conditions of pro- 
duction, cost and the markets. The average dairy- 
man has likely just about been holding his own, 
while there is a considerable class of farmers of 
indifferent methods, whose dairy operations are re- 
turning them a net loss. The dairymen who have 
put the maximum amount of intelligence and busi- 
ness management into the conduct of their business 
are not seriously complaining about low markets 



136 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

nor decreased gains. By attention to details and 
by the utilization of the most approved methods of 
dairy and farm management, they have been able to 
offset the increased cost of production by a corres- 
ponding increase in efficiency of their milk-produc- 
ing machinery. They have increased the producing 
capacity of their cows by selection and intelligent 
feeding, and have kept down operating expenses by 
the installment of labor-saving machinery. 

For instance, one cow will produce 6,000 pounds 
of milk per year, with practically the same feed 
consumption as another cow which produces only 
4,000 pounds per year. This difiference in produc- 
tion represents the difference in efficiency of the 
two animals. The wise dairyman who has dis- 
carded the 4,000-pound kind of cows and given his 
feed to the 6,000-pound sort is the man who is not 
seriously complaining about the milk market. 

Granting that market conditions, the cost of pro- 
duction and the increased expense of feed and labor 
have worked a hardship upon the average dairy- 
man, the experience and methods of such farmers 
as have been able to overcome these unfavorable 
conditions should be of especial interest and value. 
Definite facts and iigfures are hard to obtain. Com- 
paratively few farmers, even after all that has been 
said as to keeping farm accounts, have any actual 
figures upon which to base definite estimates. The 
experience, therefore, of a man who can show ex- 
actly to the cent the results of his year's dairying 
operations is of great interest. The figures fur- 
nished by F. B. Pratt of Du Page county, 111., cov- 
ering his dairy operations of 1909, have created a 
great deal of comment in the local and agricultural 
press and are well worthy of consideration. 

It should be said in advance that Mr. Pratt is 



PROFIT FROM THE DAIRY 137 

the manager of a large stock farm, which demands 
all his own time, and conducts his dairy as a side 
issue, depending entirely upon hired labor, under 
his more or less personal supervision. 

His farm consists of 13 ij^ acres, in addition to 
which he handles 80 acres of rented land. In 1909 
his crops consisted of 60 acres of corn, 30 of which 
were placed in the silo and 30 husked from the 
shock, 20 acres of alsike clover, 20 acres of red 
clover and timothy and four acres of rye. He had 
some 15 acres of oats and the balance of the land 
is in pasture. Farm equipment includes two silos, 
an i8-horse power gasoline engine for running the 
silage cutter, feed grinders and pump, and such 
machinery as would ordinarily be used in conduct- 
ing a farm of this size. 

His milking herd consisted of 59 head of Hol- 
steins, five of which were pure bred, and the bal- 
ance were high grade. The milk from this herd 
was sold to the condenserles at current market 
price, absolutely no advantage in price being re- 
ceived for the excellent sanitary conditions under 
which it was produced. Contrary to the average 
dairy, the greatest output from this farm was in 
the winter months, although the amount sold re- 
mained fairly equal throughout the year, varying 
from 32,000 to 42,000 pounds monthly. The total 
amount sold to the condensery amounted to 426,150 
pounds. Adding to this 18,360 pounds fed calves 
and 3,876 sold locally, the total production of this 
herd was 448,396 pounds, or 7,600 pounds of milk for 
each cow. The average price paid was $1.40 per 
hundred, making the gross production per cow 
$106.40. 



138 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

FIGURES ARE CONCLUSIVE 

A very complete book account was kept by Mr. 
Pratt, including absolutely all expense items, in- 
cluding" also depreciation in value for such cows as 
had passed the age of greatest value, also deteriora- 
tion of machinery, taxes and insurance, and allow- 
ing 5 per cent interest upon an investment of 
$20,000. Every item which could reasonably be 
charged against the gross operation of the farm was 
added to the expense account, and even then the 
net profit amounted to $1,977.40. This record is so 
remarkable as to have occasioned doubts of its ac- 
curacy among some well-informed dairymen, but 
Mr. Pratt has the figures, the bills for cash ex- 
pended and the statements of the condensery as to 
amount of milk received, and the figures are ab- 
solutely conclusive. 

After ascertaining the fact that the record was 
actually made under genuine farm conditions, by 
a dairy operated for profit and not for pastime, I 
was especially interested in learning from Mr. 
Pratt the methods of feeding and management 
which contributed to this result. The distribu- 
tion of his crop has already been described. Very 
little dependence was placed upon pasture, its prin- 
cipal use being to give the animals exercise in the 
fresh air daily. All feeding was done, summer and 
winter, in the barn. Stated amounts were not given 
each animal, but the amount fed was gauged rather 
by the consuming and producing capacity of the 
animal. The previous year's supply of corn silage 
lasted until June, and at this time four acres of rye 
and three of alsike clover were cut and placed in 
the silo for summer feeding. This was run through 
the silage cutter and very finely chopped, carefully 



PROFIT FROM THE DAIRY 1 39 

packed and remained in excellent condition until 
entirely consumed. This seven acres of rye and 
clover Mr. Pratt considers the most profitable crop 
he raised. It lasted from the middle of June until 
September, when the new corn silage was ready 
to use. He fed the cows all they would eat of it, 
and assured me that the results from its use were 
of greatest benefit in maintaining the flow of milk 
during the period of the summer when the dairy- 
men depending upon pasture always figure on a 
heavy decrease in production. 

SILOS FURNISH MOST FEED 

His two silos are filled with finely-chopped corn 
silage in September, and this feed s'upply will 
easily last until the coming June, when some of the 
summer silage will be ready for use. The grain 
ration consists of equal parts of finely ground corn 
and cob meal, dried brewers' grains, bran and wheat 
middlings. The silage and grain are fed night and 
morning and clover hay at noon. 

There is nothing in the management of this farm 
that cannot be duplicated upon any farm in Illinois. 
The two factors of its success are : First, using 
cows of high-producing capacity. Second, utilizing 
by means of the silo the best dairy feed, and the 
absolute elimination of waste by feeding in the 
barn throughout the year. Such feeds as brewers' 
grain and shorts, which are purchased on the mar- 
ket, Mr. Pratt buys early in the season in carload 
lots, instead of paying the advanced prices de- 
manded later in the year. Results upon similar 
farms in the same county, figuring absolutely the 
same items of expense and receipts, figuring the 
same interest upon land valuation and the same cost 



140 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

for labor, show an absolute net loss of $4 to $5 per 
(lay. The difference between the approximate 
$2,000 loss and $2,000 profit represents the differ- 
ence in the standards of efficiency and management 
of the two farms. 

PAYS TO RAISE CALVES 

How to profitably raise calves for use in building 
up the standard of dairy herds has always been a 
puzzling question to the farmers producing milk 
for city markets, where there is no skim milk or by- 
products of any kind to feed young animals. As 
we noted before, Mr. Pratt fed more than 18.000 
pounds of this expensive milk to fifteen head of 
calves. "Isn't this a rather expensive method of 
producing stock," I inquired of Mr. Pratt. "Well, 
I fed this 18,000 pounds of milk, which was worth 
$235 upon the market, to fifteen head of Holstein 
calves. I sold three or four of these the other day 
for $50 per head. These were not pure breds, but , 
simply well-graded calves. I can secure this aver- 
age for the whole bunch. In other words, I will 
sell for $750 animals that were produced with $235 
worth of milk. 

"At the present values of good dairy stock it 
pays to feed this expensive market milk to the 
calves. I feed them until they are three months 
old, gradually introducing crushed oats and other 
easily assimilated feeds until the complete change 
is made from milk to dry feed, without any serious 
detriment to the growth of the young animal. Under 
present conditions I do not think the making of 
milk for market, profitable as it has proved for me, 
represents the greatest or most profitable type of 
dairy farming. I intend to install very shortly a 



PROFIT FROM THE DAIRY I4I 

complete apparatus for churning and handling 
butter upon my farm. Some of the best butter- 
makers are now obtaining 5 pounds of butter for 
each hundred pounds of milk. Even if I can only 
secure 4^ pounds per hundred pounds of milk, I 
figure that I can secure as great cash returns as 
though the milk were sold upon the market, and 
have left as clear gain the skim milk, which I shall 
utilize in feeding calves and pigs. 

"Four and one-half pounds of butter, which 
ought to bring 30 cents per pound, amounts to 
$1.35, or within 5 cents per hundred pounds of my 
last year's average for market milk. The by- 
product in the form of skim milk retained upon the 
farm and fed to young stock ought to increase the 
profits by one-half. In addition to this we will be 
spared the labor and expense of making daily de- 
liveries of the large bulk of the milk output. 

"I think it is probably true that the distributor 
exacts too great a profit, yet I am sure that the 
ultimate success of the dairy industry does not 
depend so much upon boosting the price as it does 
upon the development of more intelligent methods 
of dairying. The percentage of profit or loss from 
dairying operations in this county is pretty accu- 
rately measured by the degree of skill and special 
management which the individual dairyman de- 
votes to his business." 

INDIRECT RESULTS OF DAIRYING 

The economical handling of manure produced by 
dairy animals for the enrichment of the soil is by 
no means the least important consideration in de- 
termining the merits of the industry. The soil of 
exclusive dairy sections is usually very rich after 



142 



PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 



a few years of dairying", because not only is all the 
grain and forage produced upon this land returned 
to it in the form of manure, but large quantities of 
concentrated feeds are purchased from outside 
sources and fertility is also gained by the dairy farm. 
The indirect returns from dairying are deserving 
of fully as much consideration as the immediate 
financial results. The most highly developed type 
of dairying in regions of heavy forage and grain 
production can, by using the silo for preserving 
winter feed and by feeding soiling crops in sum- 
mer, maintain one cow per acre of land. Very few 




ELEVATION OF DAIRY BARN 



are doing this, it is true, but it can be 
done, and is being done in some notable in- 
stances. The American dairyman should get 
rid of a few of his cows and double the produc- 
ing capacity of those he keeps. This improvement 
in quality is the most imperative need of the indus- 
try at this time. Coupled with this must be heavy, 
intelligent feeding. Return to the soil of the dairy 



PROFIT FROM THE DAIRY 



143 



farm the tremendous amounts of valuable fertility 
produced by the stock in order to raise still larger 
crops the following year. The effect will be 
cumulative. 

Greater fertility will produce heavier crops. 
This, in turn, will maintain more live stock 
and the process will be repeated in some degree 
each succeeding year until the maximum producing 
capacity of the land is reached. There is scarcely 




GROUND PLAN OF DAIRY BARN 



a farm in the country today which has ever been 
made to produce its maximum amount. The time 
is rapidly approaching when the insistent de- 
mands of an unsupplied market will drive the 
American farmer and dairyman to more inten- 
sive methods and will compel a largely in- 
creased return from each acre of land now cul- 
tivated. The field for intelligence and special man- 
agement is no greater in any line of business than 
is found in the dairy industry today. There is no 



T44 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

field which promises greater returns for the money 
and skill expended, yet there is no industry which, 
on an average, under present conditions, pays a 
smaller percentage. The instances are many where 
large profits are made both in direct returns and 
in the upbuilding of the soil, but the average re- 
mains discouragingly low. It is high time for the 
American farmer to awaken to his opportunities in 
this field, and to get out of this important industry 
the wealth that lies hidden in it. 



CHAPTER XI 

Sheep Under Farm Conditions 

The sheep is known to have been under domes- 
tication longer than any other animal. Whether 
it was originally one of the species of wild sheep 
still found in uninhabited places, or whether it is 
a descendant of one of the wild species now extinct 
is an undecided question. It has been under the 
control of man for so many generations that it has 
lost all of the original wild animal characteristics, 
and is the most helpless and incapable of self- 
preservation of any of the domestic animals. Cer- 
tain it Is that long before the most remote legendary 
and Biblical times, the sheep was thoroughly do- 
mesticated, and was one of the most Important 
animals. In the western movement of settlement 
across Europe and later across the Atlantic, this 
animal has always been in the advance guard of 
civilization. It was brought to America by Colum- 
bus and subsequent Spanish explorers, and rapidly 
obtained a foothold in the West Indies, Central and 
South America and Florida. Later, the early Eng- 
lish and Dutch settlers in New England and New 
York brought numbers of sheep with them, with 
the expectation of developing sheep growing in 
their new colonies. Naturally, the Spanish Im- 
portations consisted of the fine wooled Merinos 
which, at that time, made Spain famous as the 
world's leader In the production of fine wool and 
fabrics; while the sheep imported to the North 
were of the large, coarse-wooled varieties from 
England and the north of Europe. 

145 



146 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

Sheep, in the northern part of America, did not 
thrive and increase very rapidly until late in the 
colonial period, principally on account of the depre- 
dations of wild animals, and because of oppressive 
trade regulations imposed by the mother country. 
In striking- contrast was the development of the 
sheep-growing industry in all of the Spanish- 
American colonies. The original stock introduced 
into the West Indies and Yucatan was carefully 
preserved, and under the intelligent and fostering 
care of the Spanish government, the number of 
sheep rapidly increased. They spread over the 
country with the same rapidity as the early Span- 
ish settlers, soon obtaining a foothold in Mexico 
and spreading from there northward into Texas, 
New ]\Iexico and California. As early as 1560, it 
was written by a Spanish historian that " much 
woolen cloth was made this year in New Spain." 
By 1750, sheep were very abundant in the Spanish 
province which is now New Mexico, and in 1773 
they had spread into southern California. From 
1775 to 1850 was the period of greatest Spanish 
activity in California, wdien many missions were 
established, and the first beginnings of permanent 
settlement were made. Every Spanish mission 
owned and fostered its large flocks of sheep, and 
by 1825 the 17 missions between San Diego and 
San Francisco owned more than 1,000,000 sheep. In 
addition to this, the early ranchers of that period 
owned, perhaps, as many more. All of these south- 
western sheep were of the Merino type, being rela- 
tively heavy wool producers and very light meat 
producers. 

At a period early in the nineteenth century the 
present territory of New Mexico supported prob- 
ably a greater number of sheep than it does 



SHEEP UNDER FARM CONDITIONS I47 

now. When the rush to the gold fields in Cali- 
fornia began in 1849, creating suddenly an abnormal 
demand for food products of all kinds, many of the 
early Spanish sheepmen of this territory trailed enor- 
mous flocks from the ranges of New Mexico across 
the mountains, down the Gila and Salt rivers to 
the Colorado, crossing at a point near the present 
site of Yuma, then across the Mojave desert of Cali- 
fornia, across the Sierras and up the coast to San 
Francisco, where they were disposed of to the 
miners, during the first few years, at extremely high 
prices, and brought heavy profits to their owners, 
in spite of the 1,000-mile overland march to market. 
The foundation stock of the entire western range, 
which now supports approximately 70 per cent of 
the sheep of the United States, came from these old 
Spanish Merino herds. 

In the eastern part of the United States the sheep 
industry has varied greatly at different periods. 
At times the craze for fine-wooled sheep has taken 
possession of the entire sheep-growing sections, 
and fancy Merinos have sold at most exorbitant 
figures. At other times, the popular fancy has 
tended to the coarse-wooled mutton breeds, and 
the importations from English sources have been 
correspondingly heavy. The East reached its 
highest point in sheep production in the decade 
following the civil war, when the territory east of 
the Mississippi supported a little more than 24,- 
000,000 head, against 11,000,000 owned west of the 
Mississippi. From this time on the ratio has 
steadily changed, the East gradually losing interest 
in the industry on account of the competition of 
the free western ranges, because of the greater 
profits to be had from grain farming, and from 
other forms of live stock, because of cheap wool 



148 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

and a small market demand for mutton, until at 
present the territory east of the Mississippi has but 
17,675,000 head, while the western farms and 
ranges carry 38,328,000 head. 

THE DUAL-PURPOSE TYPE 

The changing conditions of the past 20 years, 
which have caused the constant decrease in beef 
production as compared with the population in the 
United States, has led to a constantly increasing 
market demand for mutton. Several of our great 
cities today demand more than a million head of 
sheep yearly to supply their local meat trade, while 
a few years ago only a negligible quantity of mut- 
ton was required. The land upon which sheep 
are grown has constantly increased in value. Even 
upon the free land of the western ranges, mainte- 
nance expenses have very materially increased, so 
that it has become no longer profitable to raise 
sheep for the wool alone, as was commonly done 
in the earlier history of the country. These chang- 
ing conditions have led to a demand for a dual-pur- 
pose type of sheep which will produce a reason- 
able fleece, and still be of sufficient weight and 
mutton quality that it will dress out a fair per- 
centage of meat when placed upon the market. 
There are probably no conditions in the United 
States today which will justify the raising, on a 
commercial basis, of sheep either for wool or for 
mutton alone. This type of breeding is left en- 
tirely to the breeders of registered animals, and is 
not practiced by the breeders of ordinary market 
sheep. Farm conditions demand a type of sheep 
which will shear at least nine or ten pounds of wool 
and which will produce a Iamb which may be mar- 



SHEEP UNDER FARM CONDITIONS I49 

keted under a year old at a weight of 85 to 90 
pounds. This type has been developed by a blend- 
ing of the extreme wool-producing tendencies of 
the Merino, and other fine wool breeds, with the 
blocky mutton form of the English mutton breeds. 
Probably the most common course in developing 
this type has been the use of Shropshire rams upon 
the common Merino foundation stock. This is es- 
pecially true in the western range country. When 
lambs sell, as they have in recent years, as high as 
5^ cents per pound on the open range, and, 
when fattened, for as high as 10 cents per pound 
on the Chicago market, it can readily be seen 
that we are far removed from the day when sheep 
could be grown for wool alone. 

BREEDING FOR WOOL AND MUTTON 

This demand for a combined wool and mutton 
type has shown its result in marked change in the 
characteristics of the foundation stock of the coun- 
try, both in the large flocks of the West and under 
farm conditions in the East. While the Merino 
characteristics are still easily discernible, the con- 
tinued intelligent selection of the dual-purpose type, 
and the long-continued use of rams from the Shrop- 
shire and other mutton breeds, have produced 
breeding stock which, to a large degree, represents 
the dual-purpose ideal toward which progressive 
breeders have been striving for the past 20 years. 
The wool-producing characteristics have been pre- 
served by the occasional use of Rambouillet or 
Merino rams when it was seen that the type was 
inclining too much to mutton form or when the 
weight of the fleeces began to decrease. 

In recent years the fattening of lambs for market 



150 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

has become an industry of large proportions, and 
the feeders from eastern farms and from the west- 
ern mountain valleys have searched for Iambs of 
the most desirable feeding type. This has led to 
the practice on the part of some sheep breeders of 
using rams of the extremely heavy mutton type, 
such as Lincoln or Hampshires, upon the common 
grade ewe, with the result that an unusually large, 
heavy mutton form lamb was produced to be placed 
in the feed lot at five months old. This has given 
the feeders a lamb of large frame and great feed- 
consuming capacity and a resulting heavier-dressed 
carcass has appeared in the markets. This prac- 
tice has been very successful in cases where all the 
Iambs were intended for sale. The cross, however, 
is so violent that the product has not been satisfac- 
tory when part of the Iambs are kept for future 
breeding. Generally, whether under farm or range 
conditions, a desirable dual-purpose type of sheep 
may be maintained by intelligent selection of breed- 
ing ewes, and the alternation as needed of the type 
of ram, using the mutton breeds when the stock 
begins to incline too much to fineness of wool, and 
using Rambouillet or ^Merino rams when the coarse- 
wooled mutton type begins to predominate too 
largely. 

MANAGEMENT OF BREEDING SHEEP 

The feeding and management of breeding 
animals of any class differs very materially from 
that of animals intended for the block. This is 
especially true of sheep. The ewe lambs which 
are intended for future breeding should be selected 
as early as possible, preferably just after weaning, 
choosing only those which conform most nearly to 



SHEEP UNDER FARM CONDITIONS I5X 

the desired type. At this time it is impossible to 
determine just what animals are best, because of 
their immature development, but the poor ones can 
easily be eliminated later on as age and develop- 
ment demonstrate their unfitness. These selected 
lambs should be kept constantly growing, since any 
setback in their development will never be en- 
tirely overcome by any subsequent care that may 
be given. Good, fresh pasture is the prime req- 
uisite for the most satisfactory growth of lambs. 
Provision should be made for supplementary graz- 
ing for late summer and early fall, when the or- 
dinary clover and blue grass pastures are likely to 
become dry and poor. The stubble may be utilized 
to good advantage at this time, or a number of 
autumn grazing crops such as rye or rape, sown 
in the growing corn, may be used. 

DESIRABLE FEEDS 

The method of feeding depends very much upon 
local conditions. The feeds given will depend 
largely upon the character of the crops produced 
upon the farm. Under ranch conditions, the range 
is depended upon, to a large extent, for winter sus- 
tenance as well as for summer, and alfalfa or 
timothy hay will be practically the only feed avail- 
able. This is usually used only in times of severe 
storms. The best eastern farmers who keep sheep 
depend largely upon clover hay and roots for the 
feed for their breeding sheep in winter. It will 
usually pay to feed a small grain ration even though 
the animals are already in good condition. Just 
what this grain ration will be will depend consid- 
erably upon the kind and condition of the rough 
feed. If clover or alfalfa hay is being used quite 



152 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

liberally, a small ration of cracked corn and, per- 
haps, a little oil meal occasionally, will serve to bal- 
ance up the ration very evenly. In case mixed 
hay and grasses or oat straw is being used, the 
ration should include some grain rich in protein. 
Bran or oats mixed with the corn will serve to 
supply this need. The oil meal should always be 
fed in the lump form to sheep, as they seem to relish 
it more. It is best fed mixed with bran or cracked 
grain. 

Succulent feed of some sort is essential to the 
best development of sheep under farm conditions. 
This need may be met in a number of ways. Vari- 
ous root crops may be grown which are easily 
stored throughout the winter, and which furnish a 
very satisfactory addition to the ration. Sugar 
beets are probably the best crop which can be 
grown for this purpose. The English and Scotch 
shepherds are very partial to turnips for their 
sheep feed, and these may be grown almost any 
place in this country in liberal quantities. Ruta- 
bagas, mangel-wurzels and other roots form very 
satisfactory succulent feeds. The roots should be 
fed finely chopped or sliced, so that there will be no 
danger of choking. Where roots are not available, 
silage is an excellent winter feed, furnishing not 
only succulence, but having a high degree of nutri- 
ment. Sheep will learn to eat it very readily, and 
relish it. There is frequently danger in feeding it 
in a frozen condition, and this should be guarded 
against, as best results will not be possible from 
its use for any kind of animals while in this con- 
dition. Frequently, it is desirable to scatter the 
grain upon the silage, so that the entire ration w\\\ 
be consumed together. ^Ir. Richard Gibson of 
Ontario, after 50 years of experience in sheep breed- 



SHEEP UNDER FARM CONDITIONS 1 53 

ing and management, and after having won more 
prizes for fine sheep than all the other breeders of 
the United States and Canada combined, says : "I 
attribute my success as an exhibitor to the frequent 
feeding of a great variety of green feeds or forage 
plants. I find that cabbage and kale are extremely 
valuable green feeds. Turnips, when fully ripe, are 
also fine." It will usually be best to cut down 
somewhat the amount of succulent feed given for a 
few days preceding lambing time, and then increase 
it gradually to its maximum after the lambs are 
born. 

EXERCISE IN WINTER ESSENTIAL 

The ewes, during the winter, should be handled 
carefully to prevent possible injury. Care should 
always be taken that they are not rushed through 
narrow doors, nor frightened by dogs, nor by 
strangers going through the yards. It is also im- 
portant that they have plenty of exercise. It is 
usually possible to give them access to large yards 
or to some open field where they may browse about 
a straw stack, or in the standing corn stalks, on 
such winter days as the weather permits. In case 
of long-continued, heavy snows, when this sort of 
exercise is not possible, a passageway should be 
made through the snow from one barn to another, 
or from the barn to the feeding racks removed to 
some distance, so that the ewes will be obliged to 
take exercise enough to keep them in vigorous con- 
dition. Animals which have been kept closely 
stabled during the winter have frequently borne 
lambs which were so weak and delicate that very 
few of them survived. This was due entirely to 
the lack of exercise on the part of the mother. It 
is preferable that the sheep should spend as much 



154 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

of their time as possible in the open, and under 
ordinary conditions it is not necessary to house 
them in tightly closed barns if a comfortable shed 
opening into a roomy barnyard be provided, es- 
pecially if the barnyard be well bedded or provided 
with a good-sized straw stack. The animals will 
spend most of their time, even in the coldest winter 
weather, out of doors, seeking the shelter of the 
shed only during snowstorms or wet weather. 
Their heavy winter coat protects them from the 
air, and the thick bed of straw will prevent any ill 
effects from the cold ground. Under these con- 
ditions, the sheep will be healthier and more vigor- 
ous, and will come through the winter in better 
condition than if they are constantly kept in a 
warm, closed barn. The water supply, it is need- 
less to say, should be ample at all times, but ex- 
tremely cold water is not the best, especially for 
pregnant ewes. Water fresh from the well or cis- 
tern, or from which the chill has been removed by 
means of a tank heater, is much to be preferred to 
ice cold water. 

The winter feeding and managing of rams does 
not differ very materially from the keeping of 
breeding ewes, except that it is not advisable to feed 
a heavy ration of succulent feed. A small amount 
of this can be given with good results, but it is 
better to feed a larger proportion of dry feed. 
Plenty of exercise is essential in order to keep the 
animals in robust physical condition, and this de- 
tail should not be overlooked. 

LAMBING A CRITICAL TIME 

Lambing time is the most critical and important 
period in the life of the flock. At this time, un- 
favorable conditions or a little neglect on the part 



SHEEP UNDER FARM CONDITIONS 



155 



of the farmer may result in the loss of large num- 
bers of lambs, and the normal increase of the herd 
wiped out. The breeding period should be so 
timed that all the lambs will be born within the 
shortest possible space of time, and in this manner 
constant attention can be given during a lambing 
period. Early lambs are usually more profitable 
under farm conditions, because they can be matured 




AN IDAHO LAMBING SHED 



and marketed before the heavy shipments of range 
lambs begin. Under range conditions, it is not 
usually possible to have the lambing period until 
the weather has become quite warm, as few of the 
large breeders are equipped with lambing sheds or 
other shelter. Good warm quarters for the protec- 
tion of the flock during lambing time are essential 
to the successful production of early lambs. It is 
important that the young lamb should not suffer 
from cold or become chilled during its early life, 
when the vitality is naturally low. Heavy losses 
will surely occur if the young lambs are exposed to 
cold wind or to the rains of early spring. It will 
be necessary to give a lot of attention to the flock 



156 PR0FITADL1£ STOCK RAISING 

during this period to make sure that each ewe 
recognizes her own lamb and takes care of it. It 
will always pay to have a number of small pens in 
the lambing shed into which the ewes with their 
newly born lambs may be placed for a few hours 
or days until the lamb has gained a little strength 
and until the mother has become accustomed to her 
offspring. 

The owner should be careful to notice -whether 
the lamb sucks during the first few hours 
of its life. Occasionally the ewe will not permit 
this, and in some cases it will be necessary to hold 
the ewe and teach the young lamb to suck by giv- 
ing it a little milk with a spoon to begin with. 
Sometimes w^hen a ewQ has twins, she will pay at- 
tention to only one of them, perhaps the larger and 
stronger one. Such a contingency as this must be 
guarded against. Frequently, it is possible to sep- 
arate the twins, giving one of them to some ewe 
whose Iamb has died. Since ewes recognize their 
lambs by means of the sense of smell, this trick of 
transferring lambs to a foster mother is usually 
accomplished by tying the skin of the dead lamb 
on the live one, leaving it for several days until the 
ewe has become used to the adopted lamb. As 
soon as weather conditions permit, the ewes with 
their young lambs should be turned out in open lots 
or pasture during the warm part of the day. but 
should be sheltered at night until the lambs have 
become strong and have a protecting coat of wool, 
because the chilly spring nights are apt to be in- 
jurious to them if unsheltered. 

FEEDING EWES AND LAMBS 

The feeding of ewes after lambing does not differ 
radically from the methods already outlined. The 



SHEEP UNDER FARM CONDITIONS 1 57 

object of feeding at this period should be not only 
to maintain them in as good condition of flesh as 
possible, but to produce at the same time a heavy 
flow of milk. Naturally, the ration should include 
as large a proportion as is thought advisable of 
succulent feed, and such forage and grain as will 
furnish a large proportion of protein. If only a 
limited amount of alfalfa or clover hay be avail- 
able, it is advisable to feed corn fodder earlier in 
the season, and keep this hay until after lambing, 
as it will, at this time, serve for best results. 
Timothy hay and prairie hay are probably the 
poorest forage feeds which can be given at this 
time, and their use should be supplemented by 
liberal amounts of bran and oats. A satisfactory 
ration for ewes with lambs by their sides will be 
about 4 pounds of corn silage, I pound of mangels 
or other roots, and about ij^ pounds of mixed 
grains, for each loo pounds of live weight. This 
mixed grain should consist of lOO pounds of wheat 
bran, 25 pounds of oats, 25 pounds of cracked oil 
cake, and a little corn. In addition to this they 
should have all the clover hay they will eat, and if 
they have access to bright, clean straw, so much 
the better. 

SUMMER PASTURE AND MANAGEMENT 

As early as possible in the spring the sheep 
should be placed upon pasture. It is essentially a 
grazing animal, and the best and cheapest gains 
are made from pasture. The change from the dry 
feed of winter to the soft, green feed of early spring 
should be made somewhat gradually, especially if 
the supply of succulent feed has been low. Fre- 
quently, a few hours in the middle of the day is all 



158 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

that it is advisable to pasture the animals, feeding 
them their regular ration in the morning and even- 
ing. After the first few days, when the grass be- 
comes stronger and contains more nutriment, the 
animals may be left continuously upon pasture with- 
out serious detriment. Ordinarily, no feed is given 
while pasture is good, although this is frequently 
profitable when some special object is sought, such 
as the fitting of sheep for fairs or rapid growth of 
the lambs is desired for an especially early market. 
Grass, water and shade are essential for the best 
growth in summer. Close account should be kept 
of the animals, especially in late summer, when the 
grass is likely to become poor and dry, and extra 
feed should be given upon any indication of re- 
tarded growth. 

When the spring lambs are intended to be fat- 
tened for market the following fall, it is especially 
important that they be kept growing and thriving 
from the very day of birth. This continuous 
growth has been well begun when the management 
of the ewes has provided for a liberal flow of milk 
for the young lambs during their early life. This 
gives them a good thrifty start, and encourages a 
rapid, strong development, so that at a very early 
age they will begin to eat a little of the feed or 
pasture which supports their mothers. This 
amount of solid food taken will rapidly increase as 
the animals are placed upon tender pasture, and at 
an early age the lamb will be drawing its sus- 
tenance from the two sources. The lambs will 
learn to eat a little crushed grain or bran before 
they are very old, and if this be kept before them 
they will consume increasing amounts of it during 
the summer, with marked effect upon their growth 
and condition. 



SHEEP UNDER FARM CONDITIONS 159 

If it is impossible to change the sheep from one 
pasture to another as the grass becomes poor, then 
the feed supply may be increased with some of the 
first cutting of clover or alfalfa, and later in the 
summer the green corn may be cut and fed in the 
open pasture with good results. It is easy to pro- 
vide plenty of good green feed for autumn by sow- 
ing quick-growing crops in the stubble field, or in 
the growing corn, and pasturing this in September 
and October. By this means the lamb will receive 
no setback in its growth from the time of its birth 
to its arrival in the fattening pen. This change 
from pasture conditions to the feed lot is a critical 
period, and should be made gradually. The lamb 
should be weaned some time previous to its removal 
from the pasture to the feed lot, so that its milk 
ration and the green feed of the pasture shall not 
be taken away at the same time. If good, green 
grazing has been provided for the period just fol- 
lowing weaning there need be no bad effects notice- 
able when this change is made. 

DOCKING 

Docking young lambs is an almost universal cus- 
tom. The only section of the country where this 
is not commonly practiced is the territory of New 
Mexico, where the wether lambs are often left un- 
docked. A flock of long-tailed sheep in the stock 
yards is put down at once as New Mexico stock, 
so prevalent is the docking custom in all other 
sections of the country. The tail is a useless ap- 
pendage, hard to shear and of more nuisance than 
benefit to the animal, and this is the reason for 
docking. The lambs are usually docked at from 
ten days to three weeks old, because at that ao^e the 



l60 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

wounds will heal quickly and little pain or discom- 
fort is experienced. Some growers use a sharp 
knife, cutting off the tail at a single blow, while 
others prefer to use a chisel. When the chisel is 
used, the lamb is drawn against a block, and the 
tail severed by a single blow, leaving a stub about 
2 inches in length. Under farm conditions, brand- 
ing or ear marking is usually unnecessary, while 
under range conditions it is absolutely essential. 
If the ears are to be marked, this may well be done 
at the same time that the lambs are docked. 

SHEARING 

Shearing should be done as early in the season 
as weather conditions will permit. The old cus- 
tom of waiting until June or even midsummer be- 
fore removing the wool was an unbusinesslike one, 
reducing the amount and value of the wool re- 
ceived by the owner and undoubtedly causing great 
discomfort to the animal which had to wear this 
heavy coat during the extremely warm weather. 
The old custom of washing the sheep before shear- 
ing has also passed away, and is probably no longer 
practiced anywhere in the United States. Shear- 
ing is done either by hand or by means of machin- 
ery. It is very doubtful if shearing machines are 
profitable under farm conditions where the flocks 
handled are comparatively small. It requires two 
men to operate a small hand-driven machine, and it 
is doubtful if results justify the double expenditure 
of labor thus necessitated as compared with hand 
shearing, while the installation of a power plant 
calls for a number of machines, which would not 
be justified by the small number of sheep handled. 
It is unquestionably true that a small additional 



SHEEP UNDER FARM CONDITIONS l6l 

amount of wool can be obtained by the use of 
shearing machines, since they clip much closer to 
the skin than it is possible to do by hand. This 
is not a distinct advantage, however, under all cir- 
cumstances, since sheep which have been thus 
closely shorn, if exposed continuously to the sun 
and wind immediately afterward are likely to suf- 
fer from a blistered skin. 

MACHINE SHEARING 

Machine shearing is practiced quite extensively in 
the range country, where the large number of 
animals justify the outlay necessary for a large 
plant. It is customary to install the plant at some 
convenient point on the railroad where the sheep 
owners may drive their flocks for shearing, and thus 
save the expense of hauling the wool a long dis- 
tance by wagon. These plants are operated by 
steam or gasoline engines, and may have from ten 
to 30 machines in operation. They are placed 
where the number of sheep handled may amount 
to several hundred thousand in the course of a year. 
Even in the range country, opinion is considerably 
divided as to the relative merits of hand or ma- 
chine shearing. An objection frequently given by 
western sheep men is that the vibration of the 
machines in shearing pregnant ewes has frequently 
resulted in abortion and other severe injuries, which 
have offset any possible gain from the use of the 
machines. The experience of others does not seem 
to bear this out. The probabilities are that the 
injuries come fully as much from rough handling 
on the part of the machine operators as from the 
motion of the machine itself. 



1 62 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

CARE OF WOOL 

The handling and packing of the wool is a matter 
of considerable importance. Eastern wool growers 
who have to handle comparatively few sheep take 
great pains in folding and tying each fleece, and 
in the packing of the wool, with the result that 
their product commands a higher price than the 
average western wool. The fleece is spread upon 
the floor, the edge turned in and the entire fleece 
folded into a neat compact bundle. Often a fold- 
ing box is used to compress the wool and make 
each fleece into a bundle of the same size and gen- 
eral outline. It is then carefully tied with wool 
twine and packed into a regular wool sack. Where 
the fleece is of an unusually fine quality, free from 
dirt and bits of brush, as is usually the case under 
farm conditions, this extra care in handling and 
packing the wool will pay good profits for the time 
and labor expended. 

TREATMENT FOR PARASITES 

Hundreds of years of domestication have mad^ 
sheep in some respects a delicate animal, and 
singularly susceptible to disease and to the attacks 
of parasites, both Internal and external, when con- 
ditions are at all favorable to the development of 
either. The heavy coat of wool also furnishes 
favorable environment for the protection and 
growth of insect parasites. For this reason, the 
methods of combating these enemies of the sheep 
are of great importance to the grower. Of all the 
external parasites, scabies has probably caused the 
most serious damage to the sheep industry, with 
ticks a close second. Until comparatively recent 



SHEEP UNDER FARM CONDITIONS 1 63 

years, scabies was considered an eruption upon the 
skin from some unknown affection of the blood, 
and there was little or nothing to be done in the 
way of combating it. Modern investigation and 
the microscope, however, revealed the multitudes 
of mites working upon the surface of the skin, and 
when the true cause was known it was only a ques- 
tion of time and experimentation when definite 
remedies were produced. At present, this disease 
has largely disappeared from the range, due to per- 
sistent dipping and disinfecting, and there is abso- 
lutely no excuse for its continuation under farm 
conditions. A few dollars invested in a dipping 
plant and a few hours' work once or twice a year 
will serve to keep the sheep free from not only this 
disease, but from ticks, lice and other parasitic 
pests which may infest the herd. The type of 
dipping plant desirable Avill depend entirely upon 
the number of sheep to be handled. If several 
hundred head are supported upon the farm, 
it will pay to install a plank or cement-lined vat. 
This should be made about 5 feet deep, 30 inches 
wide at the top and tapering to about 8 inches wide 
at the bottom. It may vary from 28 to 30 feet in 
length, if only a few hundred are handled, to 100 
feet long, as is the case when several thousand are 
to be handled. When only a small number of 
animals are kept, a galvanized iron dipping tank 
may be purchased at small cost, which will serve 
very well. There are many different dipping prep- 
arations upon the market which are guaranteed 
to destroy any of the ordinary parasites. Any of 
these preparations bearing the indorsement of the 
federal bureau of animal industry may be consid- 
ered reliable, and should be used at exactly the 
strength indicated by the directions. 



164 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

Internal parasites, such as stomach worms, may 
be easily controlled. There are a number of medi- 
cated stock powders which can be fed to the sheep, 
and which will destroy these parasites, but prob- 
ably the most common and effectual remedy is the 
feeding of ordinary tobacco stems. Powdered to- 
bacco may be mixed with grain or bran, and fed 
to the sheep if desired, but the refuse stems should 
be placed in the feeding stalls where the sheep have 
easy access to them. They will usually soon learn 
to nibble at them, and eat small portions, which 
will be sufficient to keep them free from the or- 
dinary internal parasites. 

FEEDING LAMBS FOR MARKET 

There is no branch of animal husbandry which 
has attracted more attention, in recent years, nor 
from which greater profits have been realized than 
from the fattening of lambs for market upon the 
farms of the middle and far West. There have been 
some years when heavy losses have been incurred, 
due to extravagant prices exacted by the sheep 
raisers, by the high price for feed, or low condition 
of the market at a time when it was necessary to 
sell these lambs. But taking any considerable 
term of years together, lamb fattening has proved 
a profitable industry in every community where it 
has been undertaken within the past 20 years, and 
it is becoming increasingly so at present because of 
the continuously increasing demand for mutton in 
the face of a practically stationary supply. If large 
profits have been realized by feeders who have paid 
from 3 to 53^ cents per pound for the original stock, 
and paid high prices for all the feed consumed by 
it, it can be readily seen that the farmer who has 




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SHEEP UNDER FARM CONDITIONS l6$ 

kept a few score or a few hundred sheep upon his 
pasture and waste land, and has received, as prac- 
tically clear profit, the market returns from all the 
lambs he raised, has a source of revenue from his 
small flock of sheep which is equaled from no live 
stock investment which it is possible for him to 
make. 

For most markets, the feeding process is begun 
late in October or in November. In addition to late 
fall pasture, such as rye or rape, the lamb will have 
been eating a good deal of straw, corn fodder and 
other dry forage, so that by the time he is actually 
confined in close feeding pens and placed upon a 
fattening ration, his digestive system has become 
accustomed to the dry feed, and he will be in con- 
dition to handle in an economical manner large 
amounts of forage and grain, and should gain al- 
most from the first day. Roots and succulent 
feeds are not essential in successful lamb feeding. 
Exhaustive experiments conducted at the Iowa sta- 
tion indicate that, under some conditions, these 
feeds may be detrimental to the most economical 
gains. A well-balanced ration of hay and grain, 
plenty of water, a favorable climate and regular 
feeding are the factors which produce nearly all of 
the fat lambs which are marketed in the great pack- 
ing centers of this country. Alfalfa is beyond 
question the best forage for fattening lambs. 
Clover, cowpeas or some other leguminous forage 
crop is almost indispensable. Where it is impos- 
sible to secure forage of this character, sugar cane, 
kafir corn or millet which have been cut at the 
proper period and carefully cured, will produce good 
gains when used in connection with a liberal grain 
ration. Nearly all of the hundreds of thousands 
of lambs fattened in tlie far West receive only al- 



l66 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

falfa or cowpeas, with a small ration of corn, 
throughout the feeding period. In the middle 
states, clover usually takes the place of alfalfa, and 
a little more liberal corn ration is probably the rule. 

The grain ration will usually consist of corn, and 
it is generally conceded that better results are ob- 
tained from cracked corn than by feeding it whole. 
The amount given will be very small to begin with, 
and will be gradually increased throughout the 
feeding period. The best practice, especially where 
large numbers of lambs are handled, is to have one 
pen containing troughs for the grain apart from 
the pens in which the roughage is fed. The grain 
is placed in these troughs, the gate opened, and the 
sheep from one pen allowed to enter and eat their 
grain. While they are doing this, the hay or forage 
is placed in the racks and when the grain is con- 
sumed these lambs are driven back into their pen and 
another lot given grain. Small amounts of oil meal 
or crushed oats, or both, may be introduced into the 
ration with good effect, but these are not usually 
essential, and some of the most economical gains 
which have been produced have resulted from 
cracked corn as the sole grain ration. Lambs 
should average, perhaps, 60 pounds when they are 
placed in the feed lot, and after a feeding period of 
from 60 to 90 days, should weigh from 90 to 95 
pounds. Frequently, heavier weights than this are 
obtained, but when a lamb weighs more than 100 
pounds, he is likely to be discriminated against by 
the buyers, and may possibly have to be sold for a 
sheep instead of a lamb, with the resulting lower 
price. 

Whether or not to clip before shipping, depends 
entirely upon local conditions. In the far West 
lambs which have been brought from the range in 



SHEEP UNDER FARM CONDITIONS 167 

December are frequently fed until April, then shorn 
before shipping. There is no definite rule by which 
it can be determined whether this early spring 
shearing pays or not, since ordinarily the approx- 
imate value of the wool will be deducted from the 
market price of the* shorn lamb. There is always to 
be considered the possibility of a sudden change in 
the weather, which may result in severe loss in 
case the shearing is done in extreme early spring. 

FATTENING GROWN SHEEP 

The feeding of wethers or grown ewes for mar- 
kef is not greatly different from the method out- 
lined in fattening lambs. Where pasture is plenti- 
ful, lambs intended for market may be profitably 
kept until they are yearlings or older in order to 
secure one or two wool clips, as well as the in- 
creased weight at marketing time. However, it 
should be remembered that the market price per 
pound of matured sheep is always less than that of 
fat lambs. This class of sheep, kept upon good pas- 
ture throughout the summer and placed in the feed 
lot in the autumn, will usually make excellent use 
of grain and hay given, and may be marketed dur- 
ing the winter. The only type of sheep which re- 
quires special feeding is the old " broken mouthed " 
ewe. When ewes become old, especially range 
ewes, which have often been obliged to subsist on 
hard, dry feed, such as sage brush, their teeth break, 
and they become unable to consume dry forage or 
hard grain in any considerable quantities. It is 
frequently profitable to purchase these animals from 
the ranges where they can usually be secured very 
cheaply, and fatten them for market, in case a 
farmer is so situated as to have available soft feeds 



l68 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

which they can make use of freely. They are pur- 
chased in the spring or early summer and shipped 
to the farms while the grass in the pastures is plen- 
tiful and tender, and then later in the summer 
special pasture crops, principally rape, are made 
use of. By keeping them constantly on soft suc- 
culent food of this character, it is often possible to 
market them direct from pasture in the fall, and in 
excellent condition for slaughter. Feeders living 
in the immediate vicinity of sugar factories fre- 
quently make use of the wet beet pulp, which can 
be secured cheaply and in large quantities for feed- 
ing animals of this class. Various concentrated 
feeds, such as cracked or ground grain, alfalfa meal 
or molasses from the factories, can be mixed with 
it and a well-balanced ration secured, all from feeds 
in a condition to be used by these animals to good 
advantage. If they are fed throughout the winter 
in this way, a heavy wool clip may be secured the 
following spring before the animals are marketed, 
and in this way very satisfactory profits are 
secured. 

ECONOMIC UTILITY OF SHEEP 

Not the least marked of the valuable qualities of 
sheep under farm conditions is their capacity for 
utilizing materials which would otherwise be 
wasted. As removers of weeds in the fields and 
meadows sheep have no equal, with the possible 
exception of goats. They will graze in out-of-the- 
way places along the roadside and along the fences 
where large quantities of vegetation grow, but 
which it is impossible to utilize in any other way. 
Stubble fields always contain a lot of secondary 
growth of grain and weeds, as well as large amounts 



SHEEP UNDER FARM CONDITIONS 169 

of headed grain which fell down or lodged before 
harvest and was not gathered by the reaper. All 
of this the sheep will pick up and transform into 
mutton and wool, and several weeks' good feed 
which would otherwise be lost may be obtained 
every year from the cut-over grain fields. Fre- 
quently the corn fields can be pastured in the early 
autumn, and enormous quantities of the lower 
leaves will be eaten by the sheep without any in- 
jury to the ears of the corn. Not only will large 
quantities of other waste feed be utilized in this 
manner, but a constant improvement of the land 
will result. The old saying that " the sheep has a 
golden hoof " is well borne out by the experience of 
men who keep large numbers of sheep, in the con- 
stant building up of the fertility of their soils. 

SHEEP ON VALUABLE LAND 

While it is true that sheep are well adapted to 
grazing on semi-arid land and to utilizing waste 
feed and the vegetation on land which cannot 
be profitably managed in any other way, it should 
not be inferred that they have no place on the 
rich, high-priced farming land. An erroneous idea 
has often prevailed that sheep are profitable only 
on inferior land which is suited to nothing else. 
This could hardly be farther from the truth. The 
rich agricultural lands of England sustain an aver- 
age of 680 sheep to every 1,000 acres, while some 
of the best land in Scotland has supported at times 
as high as 1,380 sheep per 1,000 acres. The best 
agricultural states of America do not support an 
average of more than 25 sheep to every 1,000 acres. 
Careful breeding and intelligent management of 
sheep will return greater profits to the owner of 



170 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

the valuable land of the middle states than he can 
realize from any other live stock source, with the 
possible exception of hogs. 

FUTURE OF THE INDUSTRY 

It is from the farm districts that any marked 
future increase in the total number of sheep in the 
United States will probably come. The past 40 
years have witnessed enormous decreases in the 
number of sheep owned in this section, and the 
phenomenal increase in the great flocks held upon 
the western ranges. While this industry in the 
West has probably not reached its greatest point 
of development, we can hardly expect such con- 
tinued increase in the future in this section as there 
has been in the past. Yet there is an imperative 
demand for more sheep and for more wool in this 
country. During the year 1909, in spite of an ex- 
tremely high tariff on wool, we imported not less 
than $40,000,000 worth of raw wool from foreign 
countries, while lambs selling for 10 cents per 
pound upon the Chicago market demonstrated an 
undeniable shortage in the supply of mutton 
animals for the block. Meat production of all 
kinds in the United States is decreasing at an 
alarming rate, and this decrease is rendered more 
significant when the rapid increase In population 
and meat-consuming capacity of the country is 
considered. It has been pretty thoroughly demon- 
strated that beef cattle cannot be profitably raised 
on land which commands a market price of $200 
to $250 per acre, as is the case in many sections 
of the middle West, yet live stock of some sort 
must be produced in order to consume the surplus 
of grain and hay and in order to maintain a con- 



SHEEP UNDER FARM CONDITIONS I7I 

necting link between soil fertility and crop pro- 
duction. Hogs have always been largely depended 
upon by the farmers of this region, and will con- 
tinue to be, but it seems clear that there is room 
for many millions of sheep at present on these 
high-priced farms. The maintenance of sheep on 
the farm is a profitable business, and the man who 
likes this particular line of stock raising and is 
willing to give close study to details of management 
will be able to realize larger profits from this source 
than from probably any other one branch of agri- 
cultural activity. A start in the business does not 
require a very large outlay of capital, and the in- 
dustry is comparatively easy to enter. The most 
prudent and advisable way to start in the sheep 
business is to purchase a few good ewes of approved 
type, and then expand as the knowledge of the busi- 
ness grows and as circumstances seem to justify. 
By this means, the farm will not be overstocked by 
placing upon it more than it will support, and the 
number can be gradually increased up to the total 
carrying capacity of the land. 

ROOM FOR EXPANSION 

There are thousands of farms throughout New 
England and the eastern and southern states, as 
well as the middle and northwestern states, which 
have considerable areas of land absolutely unfit for 
anything but pasture. Much of this is over- 
grown with brush and weeds unfit for cattle 
pasture, and giving absolutely no return upon 
its value. Such land as this is ideal for 
sheep raising, except such of it as is extremely low 
and wet, and may be made to produce large quan- 
tities of wool and mutton and pay handsome divi- 



172 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

dends to the owner by a system of intelligent sheep 
husbandry. Large areas of land which are sus- 
ceptible to cultivation in all parts of the country 
are kept in pasture of a more or less permanent 
nature. There is no more profitable method of 
utilizing this grass than by raising sheep upon it. 
Even where it is kept primarily for the use of milch 
cows a considerable number of sheep can be pas- 
tured without any apparent decrease in the carry- 
ing capacity of the pasture. Any sort of grass 
which is suitable for permanent pastures will be 
consumed readily by sheep. Clover, blue grass, 
vetches, brome grass pastures or any of the various 
legumes planted primarily for soil renovation 
make sheep pasture of the very highest quality. It 
has been frequently questioned whether it is ever 
safe to pasture sheep upon alfalfa. Severe losses 
have occurred in many instances through its use, 
but it is now well established that alfalfa may 
be safely pastured if care is taken to grad- 
ually accustom the sheep to its use. They should 
never be turned into an alfalfa field hungry, and it 
is usually better to wait until the dew is off in the 
morning during the first week or two of grazing. 
Cowpeas, rape or rye sown in corn stalks furnish 
immense amounts of excellent pasture for sheep in 
late summer and in autumn. For pasture in the 
very late fall and very early spring, rye probably 
has no equal, although its value for this purpose 
has frequently been much underestimated. 



CHAPTER XII 

The Swine Industry 

The factors leading to success in swine husbandry- 
include good animals, good feed and good care. If 
we fail to provide any one of these, no matter in 
what perfect form the others may appear, a full 
measure of success is impossible. In meat animals 
conformation, constitution and type are the essen- 
tials and are found in most perfect form in pure- 
bred or high-grade animals. Such have the power 
to convert a larger part of the feed consumed into 
carcass than the scrub, which allows much of the 
feed consumed to pass out of the system as waste 
matter. As to breeds, all have their strong and 
weak points. A better feeding animal is frequently 
secured by cross-breeding. This is understood to 
mean the progeny of pure-bred parent stock. The 
character of the progeny of pure-bred parents can 
be foretold with a marked degree of certainty, but 
of cross-bred parents not at all. The black breeds 
usually give the highest grade meats with the least 
offal, but many of them have been bred for heavy 
points and consequently have lost fecundity. Re- 
lief in this line may be obtained by using Chester 
White, Duroc Jersey or Large Yorkshire sows 
which are prolific breeders and excellent mothers. 
These are bred to a pure-bred Poland China boar. 
A Poland China boar and Yorkshire sow bring a 
very superior feeder. 

BREEDS AND TYPES 

The question of what breed of hogs is best for a 
farmer to raise is one upon which little definite 

178 



174 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

information can be given. Conditions are often 
equally as favorable for success with two or more 
breeds of hogs, and the breed chosen will depend 
entirely upon the personal tastes and fancies of the 
farmer. While one man's fancy may lead him to 
adopt the Poland China as his favorite breed, his 
neighbor just across the road, situated under similar 
conditions, may choose the Berkshire or Duroc Jer- 
sey, and the success of the two may be equal. The 
question of type, however, is one which is vitally 
influenced by local conditions, and particularly by 
the classes of feed which are best suited to the 
locality. Hogs are divided into two general 
classes or types, which are designated the lard type 
and the bacon type. The lard type includes the 
Poland China and similar breeds, which are char- 
acterized by heavy weight and excessive production 
of fat. The bacon type includes the Tamworth, 
Yorkshire and similar breeds, which are character- 
ized by the production of a large proportion of lean 
meat, and are of wide, deep conformation suited to 
the production of bacon. The lard type is primarily 
adapted to the conditions of the corn belt, where 
the principal grain produced is of a highly carbona- 
ceous nature, and, therefore, peculiarly suited to 
the excessive fat formation characteristic in this 
type of hogs. The bacon type is more especially 
adapted to regions where such grains as barley and 
field peas are grown in profusion and where corn is 
not the leading cereal crop. The highest-priced 
bacon produced in the world is grown by the 
Danish and Irish farmers, with the Canadian ex- 
port bacon in close competition. The hogs produc- 
ing this bacon receive no corn, but are fed upon 
grains and grasses in wdiich protein is the pre- 
dominant element. Very excellent bacon is also 



THE SWINE INDUSTRY 175 

iiow being produced in the high valleys of the 
Rocky Mountain states where alfalfa pasture, west- 
ern grown barley, peas and sugar beets constitute 
the ration. 

In choosing the type of hogs to be bred, the 
farmer should pay particular attention to the 
natural conditions under which he is working, and 
should breed the type of hogs that thrive best upon 
the grains and forages his farm will produce. The 
selection of the foundation stock for a herd of hogs 
is of the utmost importance. Poorly chosen in- 
dividuals of indifferent breeding will tend to trans- 
mit their undesirable characteristics to their off- 
spring, with the result that the quality of the entire 
herd is likely to be low. Learn to appreciate the 
strong points in whatever particular breed is chosen, 
and then select those individuals for breeding which 
most nearly conform to the ideal type. In select- 
ing breeding hogs, either male or female, the follow- 
ing points should receive consideration : Form, 
size for age, quality and feet and legs. To thor- 
oughly inspect a hog it is necessary to view it from 
the sides, front and rear, both standing and in 
motion. From the side, the hog should show a 
rather short head, full jowl and neck, a strong, 
rather arched back without any depression back of 
the shoulders or at the loin, a deep body of good 
length, and a deep, well-rounded ham. From front 
and rear the side lines of the body should be straight 
and parallel, and this will be true if the develop- 
ment of shoulder, spring of rib and ham are uni- 
form. Good quality is indicated by fine hair, 
medium bone and absence of wrinkles and general 
coarseness. Hogs coarse in type mature slowly 
and fatten indifferently. Those possessing harsh 
hair and skin and showing wrinkles will produce 



176 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

inferior pork. Breeding hogs should have short, 
strong legs and strong, upright pasterns. Lack of 
sufficient bone as shown by weak, broken-down 
pasterns, is a common defect noticeable in brood 
sows, especially those that have been fed largely 
on corn. In fact, feed has much to do with de- 
velopment and strength of bone. A low, weak 
back indicates weakness, and no young sow show- 
ing such a defect should be kept for breeding 
These two defects, weak pasterns and backs, may 
be readily noticed wdien the pig is moved and often 
when standing. Other common faults are coarse 
shoulders open on top, poorly sprung short ribs 
and narrow loin. 

SELECTION FOR BREEDING 

The fecundity of sows always appeals to hog- 
raisers. The size of litters varies with breeds to 
some extent, but still more with individuals. Statis- 
tics compiled by the Indiana experiment station 
show that the average size of several hundred of 
Poland China, Berkshire and Chester White litters 
were : Poland China 6.5 pigs to the litter, Berk- 
shire 7 pigs to the litter, and Chester AVhite 7.5 
pigs to the litter. However, litters of these breeds 
will vary from three or four to ten or more pigs to 
the litter. Confinement and overfattening tend to 
reduce fecundity. Again, sow-s that are sluggish or 
over-refined in type are usually indifferent breeders. 
So far as known, the sow controls the size of lit- 
ters, and since fecundity is largely a family or in- 
dividual characteristic, it is good policy to select 
brood sows only from litters of which at least seven 
pigs have been successfully raised. Select for a 
sire a pure-bred animal, using as much care and 



THE SWINE INDUSTRY 1 77 

thought as the successful horseman uses in select- 
ing his breeding stock. Use one that is recorded 
in the herd books of the breed you select. This 
registration is a guarantee of his purity and in- 
sures a uniform conformity to the litters. This is 
an item of value when they are ready for market, 
and of satisfaction to their owner all through the 
growth. He should be kept In good, vigorous, 
thrifty condition, not fat, with plenty of exercise. 
For summer, give him a pasture run or feed green 
food in a large yard. In winter, part of his feed 
can be roots. It is better if his quarters are away 
from the other hogs. Handle him kindly, but with 
an understanding that he must obey, and he will 
be quiet and kind. 

In the care of sows during pregnancy, remember 
that the sow has two duties to perform, namely, 
keeping up the functions of her own body and sup- 
plying the unborn litter with the elements neces- 
sary for its development. In order to properly 
perform these duties, the sow's feed must be rich 
in protein. The ration should never be allowed 
to become excessive in carbohydrates. One of the 
greatest dangers to avoid is constipation. Al- 
though feeding at this time will not need to be so 
heavy as after the pigs are farrowed, it should be 
liberal Aim to keep sows in good condition, 
neither too fat nor too lean. The error of allow- 
ing the sow to become fat would perhaps be least 
productive of serious consequences. The mistake 
in feeding breeding animals is most frequently that 
of keeping such stock in a thin, half-starved con- 
dition under the idea that the reproductive organs 
are peculiarly liable to become transformed into 
masses of fat. It should be borne in mind that the 
main demands upon the sow are those for the build- 



178 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

ing of new tissue ; hence, the kind of feed is im- 
portant. The nitrogenous or protein-bearing feeds 
are needed at this time. These are oil meal, bran, 
l)eans, peas, oats and barley, and to a moderate ex- 
tent wheat. The forage plants that are especially 
suitable for pregnant brood sows are the clovers and 
their relatives, alfalfa, peas and beans. The or- 
dinary pasture grasses are also of much value. In 
feeding sows, always give the ration in such form 
that the system of the sow will be at its best. 
Never feed corn in large amounts to breeding stock. 
It is too heating, and contains too much of the fat- 
forming elements. During the winter season, the 
hog's system not only craves green feed, but bulk 
is demanded. This is especially needed when con- 
siderable confinement is necessary. To offset the 
lack of green feed, there is nothing that surpasses 
roots. These may be sliced or pulped and mixed 
with the grain, or may be given whole, as a noon 
feed. Some care must be exercised in feeding 
roots, as they are laxative in effect, and if fed in 
excessive amounts may bring about profuse action 
of the bowels. Keep charcoal, ashes and chalk in 
reach of the sows at all times. These act as a ver- 
mifuge and preventive of disease and meet the hog's 
craving for mineral matter. The constant use of 
such a preparation with a varied ration will, in a 
large measure, prevent sows from eating their pigs 
at farrowing- time. 



'fc> 



HOW MANY LITTERS? 

One of the mooted questions of hog raising is 
whether it is profitable to try to raise more than 
one litter per year from the same breeding stock. 
This problem is one which must be decided by each 



THE SWINE INDUSTRY 1 79 

farmer for himself and it depends entirely upon 
the conditions under which he is working and the 
equipment he has for caring for hogs. Pigs born 
in the fall are never profitable unless the farmer is 
prepared to take the very best care of them during 
the winter. If he has warm shelter for them and 
has an abundance of milk or ground feed and roots 
with which to keep them growing, and has equip- 
ment for heating or cooking this feed during the 
cold months, fall pigs may be made to pay fair 
profits. Unless they can be very carefully taken 
care of, they will not thrive during the cold weather, 
will become stunted, and it will be impossible to get 
the growth out of them that is necessary for profit- 
able stock production. To successfully raise two 
litters per year from one sow, it will be necessary 
to plan for the arrival of a spring litter early in 
March. This frequently will be found a disadvan- 
tage because the weather at this time is usually 
cold and stormy and not conducive to thrifty growth 
during the first month of the pig's life, which is a 
vital period. By planning the arrival of the spring 
litter at this time, the fall litter should be farrowed 
by the middle of August or early September, so 
as to have the fall pigs well started on their growth 
before the cold weather arrives. 

An important detail in the management of grow- 
ing pigs, especially fall pigs, is to see that they get 
plenty of exercise. The spring pigs will usually 
take plenty of exercise of their own accord, es- 
pecially when raised on pasture, but in winter, 
when they are likely to receive a large concentrated 
grain ration in the barn, there is danger that they 
will become sluggish and not move about enough. 
Pigs which are heavily fed, and take insufficient 
exercise, will very probably develop the disease 



i8o 



PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 



known as thumps, for which there is no remedy, 
and which ahnost invariably ends fatally. Further- 
more, in the lack of exercise, the pig will not de- 
velop bone and constitution, and will tend toward 
the small blocky type of little constitution and in- 
ferior breeding qualities. 

FEEDS FOR GROWING PIGS 

There is no feed more adapted to the needs of 
growing pigs than skim milk. This makes hog 
raising a valuable adjunct to the dairy industry. 




A BRICK FEEDING FLOOR 



As the pig grows older, it can be fed increasing 
amounts of grain with this milk by mixing the two 
into slop. Bran, shorts and other mill feeds, or ground 
oats and barley, with a little cornmeal, make ex- 
cellent grains for use in connection with skim milk. 
It has long been known that plenty of pasture 
during as much of the year as is possible is abso- 
lutely essential to the most economical hog grow- 
ing. Conditions during recent years have served to 
emphasize this need The prevailing high prices 
of grain have had a tendency to induce hog 



THE SWINE INDUSTRY l8l 

raisers and breeders to rely on pasture for feed 
much more than was formerly customary. All 
pasture grasses are not of equal value. The 
poorest kinds are much better than none, but the 
benefit received from any depends largely upon 
the management of both hogs and pasture. Al- 
falfa stands at the head of the list, clover a close 
second, with white clover, June grass and timothy 
in the order named. 

It is a mistake to compel the hogs to depend entirely 
upon the grass, even though the prices of grain and 
mill feeds are high. The stomach of the pig is not 
like that of the sheep and cow, and cannot be used 
as a repository for a large amount of coarse feed 
at one time. It has been found by experience and 
experiment that hogs fed a half ration of cornmeal 
while running to clover will make as rapid gains 
as they will if confined and fed a whole ration, and 
that, too, of a better quality of meat than that made 
wholly from corn. The grass gives bulk to the 
mass in the stomach, enabling the gastric juice to 
circulate more freely through it, and digestion is 
more completely accomplished than if grain con- 
stitutes the entire ration. And, further, the clover 
contains the elements that promote the growth of 
bone and muscle which helps to make up a pretty 
well-balanced ration. 

PASTURE AND FORAGE 

For late fall and winter pasture, rape and rye are 
two of the most valuable crops which the farmer in 
the corn belt can raise. Where he has an abundance 
of alfalfa or clover so that it will not be pastured 
too closely during the summer, this can be used dur- 
ing the greater part of the winter. It will remain 
in a partially green condition and will be eaten. 



1 82 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

with relish by hogs all winter except when the 
ground is covered with snow. But, frequently, 
there is no winter supply of this pasture. In this 
case rape should be planted in the corn field at the 
time of the last cultivation, and by the time the 
corn has been gathered from the field there will be 
a fine heavy growth of green, juicy, nutritious feed 
which will be pastured by hogs and sheep until 
well into December. In some other field rye should 
be sown late in August or early in September. This 
will grow up sufficiently to cover the ground before 
cold weather stops its growth, and it will remain 
green and in good condition for pasturing all win- 
ter, so that when the rape is used up or destroyed 
by frost, the rye can be used until green feed 
makes its appearance next spring. 

In the absence of conditions which favor winter 
grazing, many farmers are using finely chopped 
alfalfa or clover hay with excellent results. Al- 
falfa meal, which can be purchased at almost any 
feed store now, is particularly adapted to winter 
feeding of hogs and it can be readily mixed with 
chopped grain, or other feed. It furnishes a ration 
of high protein content, and serves to add bulk to 
the feed. This last is of greater importance than 
many farmers have thought in adding to the health 
and thrift of their hogs. An excessive concentrated 
grain ration has been found less efficient than a 
smaller quantity of grain fed in connection with 
some bulkier feed, such as chopped hay or roots. 

On farms where the amount of land which can 
be devoted to hog pasture is not large, greater 
efficiency of the pasture can be secured by using 
the lot system of grazing. This consists simply 
in having the grazing land divided into two 
or more portions, so that one may be grazed while 



THE SWINE INDUSTRY 1 83 

the pasture In the other is growing up, and they 
are used alternately. If the pasture be of a per- 
manent nature, such as clover or alfalfa, it will 
generally pay to go over each lot with the mowing 
machine immediately after the hogs are placed on 
the other lot. This cuts down the old dry stalks 
that have been left and stimulates a new rapid 
growth of young, tender shoots. There will be less 
tendency to waste feed by this method than where 
a large number of hogs are kept continuously in 
one pasture, and it is also undoubtedly true that a 
larger number of animals can be maintained on 
a given area of land. 

In some corn-growing districts, and more es- 
pecially in some of the pea-growing regions of the 
mountain valleys, the custom of " hogging off " 
a crop has become quite common. This consists 
simply of turning animals into a corn field or pea 
field and allowing them to harvest the crop, con- 
suming all they desire of the grain and keeping 
them in the field until it is all cleaned up. Some 
hold the idea that hogging ofif a crop is a shiftless 
way of farming. This is based neither on facts nor 
good judgment, according to the statement made in 
a bulletin on this subject, issued by the Minnesota 
experiment station. As a method of economical 
feeding, the practice of hogging off corn has been 
growing in favor during the past few years and 
seems to be a practical and economical way of feed- 
ing hogs for several weeks during the fall. A two- 
years' investigation into this subject was made at 
the Minnesota station. Comparisons were made 
with other methods of feeding corn and letters of 
inquiry were sent to many farmers who had ex- 
perimented with this plan. As a result, the station 
is strong in its recommendation of this plan, viewed 



i84 



TROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 




MOVABLE HOG SHELTER 



from an economical standpoint brought about by 
the reduced bill for labor. Pork was produced with 
less grain by hogging corn than by feeding 
ear or snapped corn in yards. Hogs fed in fields 
gained nearly one-third more rapidly than those fed 
in yards. The cost of fencing the corn field may 
be from $i to $2.50 less per acre than the cost of 
husking corn. It requires no more labor to pre- 
pare for subsequent 
crops fields that 
have been hogged 
off than those that 
have been treated 
by the ordinary 
methods of harvest- 
ing. Hogs w^aste 
no more corn in 
the field than when fed in a yard. They pick the 
corn as clean as most men do in husking. Labor 
in caring for hogs is not increased by hogging off 
corn, but may be decreased if systematic methods 
are employed. 

FATTENING RATIONS 

It IS coming to be generally recognized that so 
far as health, thrift and rapidity of gains are con- 
cerned, corn alone, at least in dry-lot feeding, does 
not give as satisfactory results, especially for grow- 
ing pigs, as a combination of corn and some feed 
adding protein to the ration. Wheat shorts is very 
commonly considered the best feed to use with 
corn for young pigs, but other feeds are on the 
market which contain still larger quantities of pro- 
tein, and their merits for pig feeding deserve in- 
vestigation. With this object in view, the Iowa ex- 
periment station conducted a series of experiments 



> 

THE SWINE INDUSTRY 1 85 

in swine feeding. In using meat meal and tankage 
as supplemental feeds the following conclusions 
were reached : that meat meal and tankage of 
similar chemical composition are almost equal, 
pound for pound, as a supplement to a corn ration 
for growing pigs and fattening hogs. That grow- 
ing pigs fed meat meal and tankage to the extent of 
16% per cent of their ration, and older hogs hav- 
ing these feeds to the extent of 10 per cent of their 
ration with corn, ate more feed and made more rapid 
gains than those fed on any other combination, 
such as shorts, barley and corn, or shorts and corn 
tested in these experiments. In dry lot feeding, a 
ration composed of corn with either meat meal or 
tankage, produced from 25 to 40 per cent faster 
gains on quite mature hogs and from 50 to 60 
per cent faster gains on younger hogs than a ration 
of corn alone. In every instance, the number of 
pounds of feed required per hundred pounds gain 
was decidedly less with the mixed ration. 

Under certain special conditions it is possible to 
raise and fatten hogs without the use of grain. 
Farmers situated in immediate proximity to cream- 
eries having large quantities of skim milk and 
buttermilk which can be purchased cheaply, and 
farmers living near cities where the refuse from 
hotel kitchens can be obtained, have frequently 
secured large profits from hogs raised and fattened 
on these materials. It is also possible to main- 
tain breeding animals in a medium state of thrift 
on pasture without the use of any grain, but this 
is never an advisable practice where even a small 
grain ration can possibly be supplied. Experi- 
ments have shown conclusively that hogs on even 
the best pasture grow faster and make vastly more 
economical gains if a ration of grain be furnished. 



1 86 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

The phenomenal rise in land values in recent 
years has resulted in a depreciation of interest in 
live stock production throughout the entire country. 
This is applied with less force, perhaps, to the hog 
industry than to cattle and sheep growing, but its 
cfifect has been very noticeable even in this. In 
addition, a short period of extremely low prices 
was experienced as a direct result of the financial 
flurry of 1907, when the hogs which had been raised 
and finished on high-priced grain were marketed 
at so low a price as not to pay for the grain they 
had consumed. These two factors resulted in the 
marketing of hundreds of thousands of breeding 
hogs in all parts of the country. The direct 
result of this move was in turn seen two years later 
when the markets of the country oflfered the highest 
prices paid for fat hogs since the civil war, and were 
even then unable to secure a supply adequate for 
the needs of the packers. The rapidity with which 
the hog supply of the country may be diminished 
or increased is one of the remarkable features of 
the industry, and one reason why it is impossible 
to forecast for any considerable length of time just 
what the market supply or demand will be. The 
supply will probably continue to fluctuate in the 
future as it has in the past in sympathy with agri- 
cultural conditions. This much, however, is cer- 
tain : that hogs managed and fed in the most 
economical manner, with a liberal use of pasture 
and forage, and the feeding of minimum amounts 
of high-priced grain, will pay higher interest on 
the high-priced lands of the Mississippi valley than 
will any other single class of live stock. Their 
value as improvers of the soil should not be over- 
looked. Althousfh it is considerablv less than that 
of cattle and sheep, still they have a high value for 



THE SWINE INDUSTRY 187 

this purpose, probably much greater than has 
usually been accorded them. 

MARKET DEMANDS 

The type of hog most favored in the markets is 
very different from that demanded 20, 30 or 40 years 
ago. Then the large hog, with the broad, fat back 
and sides, was the type demanded. The taste of 
consumers has greatly changed since then. The 
popular demand at the present time is for early ma- 
turing hogs weighing from 200 to 300 pounds each. 
These hogs furnish a smaller amount of lard and a 
relatively greater percentage of ham and bacon. 
The public demand at this time favors light, lean 
hams and thin, rather lean bacon, and this is pro- 
duced only by the light, trim-built type of hog. 
The farmer who would get the largest per cent of 
profit must know the demands of the market, must 
cater to that demand and produce what the buyers 
want. This type of hogs should be brought to 
maturity and marketed at from eight to ten months 
old, certainly not more than ten months. 

The unusually high prices realized for fat hogs 
in the winter of 1909-10 will undoubtedly not be 
maintained indefinitely. They were induced in a 
very large degree by the definite shortage of hogs 
throughout the country. This shortage will be 
supplied within a year or two, and it is only 
reasonable to suppose that lower prices will pre- 
vail. However, it is extremely unlikely that 
the prices for fat hogs will ever again drop to the 
low level which they have at times In the past, ex- 
cept in the case of some unforeseen financial emer- 
gency, such as occurred in 1907. The demand for 
meat products is continually increasing in the 



1 88 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

United States. The supply of mutton is practically 
stationary, the supply of beef is decreasing, and 
already the United States has practically given up 
its former vast export meat trade because there 
is absolutely not enough meat produced in the 
United States to much more than supply the local 
demand. The quickest increase can be brought 
about by the hog breeder because of the large per 
cent of increase in this class of animals. On ac- 
count of the decreasing beef supply and the con- 
tinually increasing population, it seems reasonable 
to suppose that the consumption of pork in this 
country will constantly increase, and, therefore, 
furnish a continuously expanding market for all the 
pork products we are able to grow through a con- 
siderable term of years. The fact to be empha- 
sized, however, is that careless and wasteful 
methods in raising and fattening hogs must go. 
There is no longer any place in American agricul- 
ture for the type of farmer who is not willing to 
mix with his farming operations the maximum 
amount of brains and intelligence. He can no 
longer depend upon feeding corn to his hogs in 
small pens throughout the whole year as he did 
years ago, and expect to make a dollar of profit. 
Under present conditions, an ample supply of pas- 
turage is the first requisite for success in raising 
hogs. A certain amount of grain will be necessary 
to profitable production. A willingness and ability 
on the part of the farmer himself to select and breed 
in the most intelligent manner, to feed economically 
and efficiently, to know the markets and to be able 
to take advantage of the conditions offered by the 
market, will go a long way toward insuring per- 
manent success. 



CHAPTER XIII 

The American Horse Market 

The total value of horses in the United States 
at present is stupendous. According to carefully 
compiled statistics, under date of January i, 1910, 
the value of horses in the United States amounts 
to the magnificent figure of $2,051,555,000. At that 
time there were 20,212,000 horses in the United 
States, giving an average value of $101.50 per head. 
Of course, this is considerably higher than for a 
number of years, because of the fact that values 
have advanced rather than decreased. The demand 
for horses is on the up grade and very strong, in 
spite of the widespread introduction of automobiles 
and other motor-driven machines. The supply 
will not very easily overtake the demand. In fact, if 
the past two decades are any indication, the demand 
will increase faster than the supply. The population 
of the United States is becoming greater and greater 
every year, more land is being worked and the use of 
horses is naturally becoming wider and wider. It 
takes a long time to augment the horse stock of any 
country, particularly where a lot of work is done in 
the field. Such a large proportion of mares are 
unproductive every season that the increase is 
naturally slow. On an average, probably not more 
than 1,500,000 colts are raised every year. When 
it is remembered that a lot of horses go out of com- 
mission every season because of age and disability, 
the reason for this slow increase is readily apparent. 

The future of the horse in America is assured. 
When the bicycle became popular it was confidently 

189 



190 PROFITAHLE STOCK RAISING 

predicted that the horse industry was ruined. For 
a time, indeed, it did look as if the business was 
seriously impaired, l)ut the bicycle had its day and 
horsemen continued to prosper. With the advent 
of the automobile in large numbers, the same pre- 
diction was made, although in a half-hearted way, 
for the bicycle era was still in mind. Although 
automobiles have been sold in large numbers dur- 
ing the last two years, it has not affected the price 
of horses in the least. In fact, the advance in horse 
values has been greater during that time than dur- 
ing any previous period for a great many sea- 
sons, so that the ordinary farmer, the stock raiser, 
the breeder of pure-bred animals apparently has 
nothing to fear. This is undoubtedly the opinion 
of importers, for 1909 saw an unusually large num- 
ber of horses brought over from the old country. 
This record of 1909 was exceeded by the im- 
portations of the following year. This shows 
that breeders as well as importers and farmers have 
implicit faith in the future of the horse industry. 
There is money, and lots of it, to be made in horses 
properly handled and the reward to the general 
farmer who keeps all the way from three or four 
to 15 and 20 mares is positively assured. He can 
raise his colts at very small cost, because his mares 
can be used for farm work most of the time, and 
his feed, of course, is cheap. 

DRAFTERS ADAPTED TO FARMERS 

The breeds and types of horses to be raised on 
the American farm will be determined largely by 
the monetary consideration involved. Not many 
horsemen are raising animals from a purely senti- 
mental standpoint. A few wealthy breeders are 



THE AMERICAN HORSE MARKET 



191 



undoubtedly handling horse stock simply for the 
pleasure they get out of it, or with some scientific 
problem in view, but the great bulk of the horse 
raisers in America are raising colts for profit. This 
being true, the breed which will bring in the most 
money, which is the most hardy and prolific, which 
can be handled with the minimum expense and the 
smallest percentage of loss, which will mature mod- 
erately early and go on the market in prime condi- 
tion, is the one to choose. AVith many farmers it 







AN ILLINOIS ROUND BARN 



is the Percheron, for undoubtedly the raising of 
draft horses is better suited to the farmer of 
America than the more specialized work of raising 
saddlers, trotting horses, roadsters or even coach 
horses. It requires less skill to produce a draft 
animal than the more delicate type suited to light 
harness or saddle conditions. Of course, any horse 



192 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

must be given good care and attention, but the heavy 
breeds are more rugged and able to withstand un- 
favorable conditions better than the lighter type. As 
a rule, therefore, the draft breed is the one for the 
average farmer to choose. If he delights in a horse 
of good action, of clean limbs, of good size, of 
uniformly good disposition, he chooses the Per- 
cheron. In some localities, particularly those 
where foreigners predominate, the breed chosen is 
apt to be colored by what w^as raised by these same 
people in the old country. For example, Scotch- 
men raise Clydesdales, Englishmen delight in 
Shires. Belgians, of course, are exceeding popular, 
being heavier than Percherons. These are admi- 
rable animals and are being raised largely in many 
parts of the United States. In the black soil 
regions of the United States where mud is very 
abundant at certain times of the year, horses with 
legs free from hair seem to be more popular than 
Shires or Clydesdales. It is, however, largely a 
matter of preference and individual taste. 

After the breed is decided upon, plan to stick to 
one line and not to constantly change. It will pay 
in the long run, in every respect. Then the choice 
of breeding stock comes in and this is the para- 
mount issue. No matter what reputation a breed 
may have, no matter how long and satisfactory the 
pedigrees are, profitable horse breeding on the aver- 
age American farm will be impossible if, in select- 
ing stallions and mares, particular attention is not 
given to individuality. If the particular animals 
you choose are not high class, are not prepotent, 
are not prolific, you cannot hope to make any 
money. The first thing to do is to get rid of your 
scrub mares. It doesn't pay to propagate inferiority 
in horses. It is a more serious problem than with 



THE AMERICAN HORSE MARKET I93 

most other forms of live stock. An undesirable 
steer or hog or sheep can be killed for meat and 
something gotten out of it, but a scrub colt is a 
source of loss and annoyance ; consequently, get 
rid of your poor mares; or, at any rate, do not 
breed them. Pick out good individuals v^hich have 
proved good breeders or give indications of being 
successful mothers. See that they have good bone, 
are full of life and also see that they are well fed 
and cared for. 

In selecting a brood mare, length of loin and a 
wide and deep rib must be given the highest con- 
sideration. Select those showing feminine char- 
acter rather than masculine. The mare's jaw 
should ht lighter than that of a stallion. The neck 
should also show refinement. If mares are to be 
bought, two rules are a pretty safe guide. One is 
to buy the mare with a foal at foot. This gives the 
purchaser an opportunity to see what kind of colts 
the mare brings. The other is to buy young fillies 
of the man who bred them. This gives an oppor- 
tunity to see both sire and dam. In purchasing 
pure-bred stock, of course, the pedigree or cer- 
tificate must be right. See that the animal has 
good ancestors. In conformation, the draft mare 
should have the sloping pastern and shoulder, good 
feet, excellent hocks, compact bone, and must have 
a good disposition. 

After the mares have been chosen, the selection of 
a stallion requires the highest skill and the best 
experience. He should be a horse of good size if 
a drafter. He must be well balanced, strong and 
virile in every particular. He must have a massive 
jaw, a clear, bright eye, good width between the 
eyes, indicating intelligence ; he must have sound 
feet; his bones must be clean and compact; all his 



194 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

joints must be neat and free from defects; he must 
be a powerfully built animal, capable of trans- 
mitting all his good qualities to his progeny. 

After you have decided what kind of a stallion 
you want, probably no place is as satisfactory for 
purchasing as the home of some reputable breeder, 
Avhere not only the sire, but the dam and frequently 
the second and third dams, can be seen. If his an- 
cestors are of the right type you may be pretty 
certain that his colts will be satisfactory. Decide 
fully what you want before leaving home, and do 
not allow a seller to change your opinion. See first 
if his age, color and marking correspond with his 
certificate. Be very careful to examine his eyes, 
for defective vision is transmitted with great cer- 
tainty. A good draft stallion should have a heavy 
jaw and a clean, neat throat. His ears should stand 
erect; his crest should be well developed with a 
neck of fairly good length. Few draft horses have 
ever had too long a neck. This neck should be set 
upon nicely sloping shoulders. Viewed from in 
front, he should be Avide, carrying his width all the 
way back. He should be well muscled upon 
shoulder, arm and forearm. His legs should be set 
well under him and only medium in length. The 
knee should be wide, carrying its width well down. 
He should measure not less than lo inches below 
the knee, nor less than 12 below the hock. Viewed 
from the side, all his legs should stand perpen- 
dicular to the body. The pastern should stand at 
an angle of 45 degrees. 

The length of the back, from shoulder blade to 
point of hip, should never exceed the length of that 
part of the quarter measured from the point of hip 
to point of buttock. If depth of shoulder and 
length of quarter each exceed the length of 



THE AMERICAN HORSE MARKET I95 

back, we have a near approach to the principle 
of the arch, the strongest self-supporting figure 
known to mechanics. A long back is a defect 
in draft horses. The body should be round, with 
ribs Avell sprung and extending well downward. 
This gives good lung capacity and indicates that 
the stallion is a good feeder. A horse cut up in the 
flank is a poor feeder, and cannot stand any extra 
exertion. 

A draft horse should be heavily muscled through- 
out the hindquarters, for the hindquarters furnish 
most of the power in drawing heavy loads. The 
hock should be given more attention than any other 
part of the horse, for draft horses go wrong because 
of defective hocks more than from all other defects 
combined. No hocks can be too good or too strong. 
Viewed from both in front and at the side, the 
hocks should appear broad, yet clean cut and free 
from fullness. In front of the hock and slightly to 
the inside, look closely for a spavin. Never buy a 
stallion with a spavin, even though you pay a small 
sum for him. The tendency for the development of 
spavins is likely to be transmitted. Quality in the 
horse is indicated by fine, short hair associated with 
a soft skin, strong, solid tendons and bone that is 
compact. 

After all these things have been looked after, put 
the stallion to the test of walking. This is the only 
gait to which the draft horse should be subjected. 
Give strict attention to every movement. The feet 
should be lifted clear of the ground, placed down 
evenly and in line. From behind the legs should 
be kept well under him, the flexion of the hock even 
and in line, the bottom of the feet showing at every 
step. From the side, his stride should appear bal- 
anced, quick and elastic. His every movement 



196 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

should indicate strength and show that nerves, 
muscles and tendons are made of the very best ma- 
terial. The tendency among stallion salesmen is to 
show the animals at a trot. The trot is of little 
value to a draft horse and should be disregarded. 

Do not buy a stallion excessively fat, for this 
extra flesh covers a multitude of defects. One in 
fair condition will be most satisfactory. 

Be sure and test the stallion's wind. Without 
good lungs he is of no value. This is seldom done, 
but it should be done in every case. Horsemen 
generally recognize that defect in wind is trans- 
missible to colts, so that it is of the very highest 
importance. The present-day stallion of any of 
the above draft breeds should weigh from 1,800 to 
2,000 pounds when in moderate flesh. Two or 
three hundred pounds can easily be added by a 
little feeding if this is ever found desirable. 

Another thing of utmost importance is to avoid 
buying a stallion with a bad disposition. They are 
not only difficult and dangerous to handle, but dis- 
position is transmitted, producing colts that are bad 
actors and resulting in loss in more ways than one. 
Grade stallions should always be avoided. Occa- 
sionally a grade stallion has every appearance of 
being as good as a pure bred, but his colts will not 
be as uniform, and a number of states are now pro- 
hibiting the standing of grade stallions. 

HANDLING STALLIONS 

Upon the handling of a stallion will depend his 
usefulness in a community. This refers to exer- 
cise, shelter and feed. Corn is a very poor feed 
for a stallion. Grass and alfalfa is undoubtedly 
the best. Oats and bran rank second, while oats 



THE AMERICAN HORSE MARKET I97 

alone probably rank third. On western farms 
stallions are kept on grass and alfalfa without any 
grain at any season of the year. These stallions 
are the best colt getters in the world. They run in 
pastures about four months of the year, then are 
taken up and fed alfalfa the remainder of the time. 
In the corn states, where this coarse grain forms 
a considerable portion of the ration, the percentage 
of mares in foal is smaller than in any other locality. 
For example, in Colorado and Idaho the percentage 
of mares in foal is highest, while in Indiana, Illinois, 
Iowa and Kansas the percentage is smallest. In 
the light of these facts, the nearer we can get to a 
grass ration the larger will be the number of colts 
produced. The nearer we can get to a strictly corn 
ration, the smaller will be the number of colts. 
Ordinarily, stallions are fed too much rather than 
too little. The feed for a stallion should be of the 
very best quality. Badly cured or musty hay 
should always be avoided. Clover and alfalfa, if 
properly cured, have no equal. Clover and timothy, 
mixed, is the next best hay. Good hay is every- 
thing in feeding a stallion. No one grain should 
ever be fed alone. If this must be done, oats cer- 
tainly is the best grain feed. The next best is 
barley, but it should always be crushed. A little 
bran in addition to the grain feed will help. 

Stallions should have plenty of exercise. They 
must not be overworked, but if all stallions were 
required to work a little ever}^ day in the year, the 
results would be much more satisfactory. The fact 
of the matter is few of them are ever required to 
work at all. This is not only bad from the breed- 
ing point of view, but it is the source of much 
trouble from sore legs. If the animal cannot be 



lijS PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

worked he should, at any rate, be given consider- 
able exercise in the way of walking. He should 
have at least a walk of three to five miles every day 
and more if desirable. To describe a work rule is, 
of course, no easy matter. Stallions are different 
in temperament. Some require a good deal of ex- 
ercise, while others require little. The exercise 
should be sufficient to expand the lungs, quicken 
the circulation, strengthen the nervous system and 
harden the muscles. Real draft work in harness 
is the very best exercise for a draft stallion. Draw- 
ing the plow, harrow, disk, mower or binder will 
not only furnish exercise for a draft stallion, but 
will result in foals of the highest quality, possess- 
ing a vitality that cannot be produced by a stallion 
which does not work. Nor should stallions stop 
work during the breeding season. A draft stallion 
may work several hours every day during the sum- 
mer; and if not abused, the harder the work the 
better will be his foal. 

CARE OF THE COLT 

The care of the colt from the beginning is an 
important proposition. It goes without saying that 
every colt must be properly fed from the start. 
Begin by feeding the mares liberally so that the 
milk supply will be abundant. Well-cured clover, 
hay and oats is the best combination for this pur- 
pose that can ever be secured. Of course, for the 
first ten days the mare must be fed sparingly. The 
digestive organs of the colt are delicate at first. 
After this, however, increase the feed of the mare 
until she is getting all she will eat. 

Should the mare have no milk, feed cow's milk. 
Cow's milk should, however, be prepared with great 



THE AMERICAN HORSE MARKET 



199 



care. Into a pint fruit jar, previously sterilized, 
pour seven parts of water and one part of new milk. 
To this add one teaspoonful of granulated sugar. 
Feed warm. The pint will be sufficient for one feed, 
but the colt should be fed every two hours. It is a 
lot of work to raise a colt in this way, but it can be 
done all right. A nipple over the spout of a teapot 
is the best thing to use for feeding a hand-raised 
colt. 

At weaning time simply let the colt suck less fre- 
quently. The mare will gradually dry up. After 




GENERAL FARM BARN 



the weaning, colts should never want for pure 
water or wholesome food. Give an abundance of 
oats, timothy or prairie hay, add a little bran to the 
grain and feed occasionally. If alfalfa and clover 
hay is used, bran will be unnecessary, although it 
makes a fine addition to the colt's ration. 

If a self-feeder can be used so that the colt can 
eat whenever it wants to, the results will be better. 



200 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

It is impossible to raise heavy horses without their 
getting plenty of feed during their growing period. 

Colts should have plenty of exercise. This de- 
velops their muscle and bone, and vital organs. 
Give them plenty of room to run and play. Of 
course, during summer colts should be at pasture 
all the time. During winter they must be well 
sheltered, but must also have an open lot in which 
to run when the weather is not too severe. A 
woods pasture is ideal for winter. 

Another thing that should be given careful at- 
tention is the colt's feet. For the first year or two 
the hoofs may require trimming. Some are in- 
clined to turn over on the side. This can easily be 
corrected by carefully trimming. If neglected, a 
valuable animal may be ruined. 

FEEDING HORSES 

In feeding horses in general the stuff raised 
on the farm must necessarily be used, with 
the possible exception that additional concentrates 
are occasionally purchased. This being true, it is 
highly desirable that feeds best suited to horses 
be produced. Nobody disputes the feed value of 
oats for horses. Prof. W. A. Henry states that 
horses nurtured on oats show mettle which cannot 
be reached by the use of any other feeding stuflF. 
Then, too, there is no grain so safe for horse feed- 
ing, the animal rarely being seriously injured if by 
accident or otherwise the groom deals out an over- 
supply. This safety is due in no small measure to 
the presence of the oat hull, which causes a given 
weight of grain to possess considerable volume, 
because of which there is less liability of mistake 
in measuring out the ration ; further, the digestive 



THE AMERICAN HORSE MARKET 201 

tract cannot hold a quantity of oat grains sufficient 
to produce serious disorders. Unless the horse is 
hard pressed for time or has poor teeth oats should 
be fed in the whole condition. Musty oats should 
be avoided. Horsemen generally agree that new 
oats should not be used, though Boussingault, con- 
ducting extensive experiments with army horses, 
arrived at the conclusion that new oats do not pos- 
sess the injurious qualities attributed to them. 

The grain most commonly substituted for oats 
is corn. While corn is not an ideal horse feed, it must 
necessarily make up a part of the ration in the 
United States. If used in moderation, in connec- 
tion with oats, shorts or middlings, the outcome 
will be quite satisfactory. 

The best forage, undoubtedly, is alfalfa or or- 
dinary clover hay. If alfalfa is used the supply of 
nitrogen in the food is increased ; consequently, it 
IS not so necessary to buy concentrates like bran, 
shorts or middlings. It goes well with corn, which 
is a highly carbonaceous feed. 

Timothy hay, while considered by most people 
an ideal horse feed, has its drawbacks. Good 
timothy hay, however, is first class, and horses do 
well on it. Well-cured prairie hay, cut at the 
right time, is usually free from dust and is very 
popular as a horse feed. 

During the fall and winter, nothing is better for 
young colts and all kinds of horse stock than bright, 
well-cured corn stover. This can be scattered out 
in the open pasture and horses pick at it during 
the day. In this way a lot of valuable feed can be 
utilized. Bright corn stover is readily eaten by 
horses. 

In the Northwest where corn is not largely grown, 
barley is often fed to horses with good results. It, 



202 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

of course, must be used in connection with oats and 
should always be ground. In this country, how- 
ever, barley is not widely fed and may never be- 
come exceedingly popular. 

The feeding of small quantities of oil cake has 
an excellent effect on the digestive system of the 
horse, but this must be fed carefully. Start with a 
small handful a day and increase this gradually. 
Oil meal results in a very glossy coat, and ought 
to form a part of the ration, especially w^here horses 
are being fattened for market. 

This chapter would be incomplete if horse grow- 
ers were not urged to supply their animals with an 
abundance of the best water obtainable. The 
animal's body is made up largely by water, and if 
it is not supplied regularly and when needed, growth 
will not be rapid and the animal cannot be kept in 
a thrifty condition. Water is especially important 
when bulky, dry feeds form the principal part of 
the ration. Where succulent substances are used, 
like soiling crops, silage or the like, these 
feeds supply a large amount of moisture. In 
America the watering of horses before feeding 
seems best. Some prefer watering after feeding, 
but it will be a pretty safe conclusion on the part 
of the ordinary farmer to water his horses before 
he gives them feed. If heated when in from 
work, great care must be used to prevent the 
drinking of too much water at once. Common 
sense will indicate how to handle this proposition. 



CHAPTER XIV 

Mides Are Profitable 

The production of mules in the United States 
has shown a steady increase for a number of years, 
but the demand is still much in excess of the supply. 
Prices are the highest on record. In spite of the 
high prices offered at all the leading markets, and 
in spite of the increase in the number of animals 
owned in the country, the market offerings grow 
smaller yearly instead of increasing. Notwith- 
standing that there are more horses and mules in 
the United States today than at any previous period 
in our history, a very marked scarcity prevails in 
all the leading markets. This unique condition is 
caused primarily by the marked prosperity of the 
agricultural sections. The South is the greatest 
mule-buying section of the country, and on account 
of the extremely high prices the southern farmers 
have received for cotton in recent years, there is 
more money in that section to be used for agricul- 
tural development than ever before. A good deal 
of this ready capital is being used in the better 
equipment of southern farms with work stock, 
which consists almost entirely of mules. Also, 
recent years have witnessed a phenomenal expan- 
sion in the farming and mining industries of the 
West and Northwest, which has called for enor- 
mous numbers of work animals for use in farming 
operations, in building irrigation ditches and rail- 
roads, and for use in the mines. This western de- 
mand has served, not only to decrease the exporta- 
tion of range horses and mules, but has drawn, to 

203 



204 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

a great extent, upon the markets of Kansas City, 
and other western points. In spite of the wonder- 
ful development of motor-driven vehicles in the 
cities, good horses and mules for street use have 
never been so scarce, and have never commanded 
such prices. It is difficult to imagine how, for 
many years to come, this country can pos- 
sibly produce good mules enough to oversupply 
the market. The opportunities for assured profits 
in this industry were never so great, and the out- 
look was never so good as at present. 

RANGE OF VALUES 

If the statistics of the comparative average 
values of horses and mules for any period of years 
since the civil war be examined, it will be found 
that the average price for mules has always been 
$5 to $15 per head greater than that of horses. 
In spite of the great advance in the values of both 
classes of animals during more recent years, the 
difference has gradually increased, and the average 
value of the mule has constantly become greater. 

TYPES AND BREEDS 

The beginning of mule breeding in the United States 
dates back to an early period in the history of the 
country, when Spanish jacks were sent by certain 
European rulers as presents to George \\^ashington. 
They were used by him on his farm at Mt. Vernon. 
Later, Henry Clay imported several of the best 
jacks from southern Europe into Kentucky, and 
thus laid the foundation for the development of 
mule breeding in this country, and also for the 
development of an American type of jack. There 
are several types or breeds of jacks known in 



MULES ARE PROFITABLE 205 

Europe, chief among which are the Catalonian, 
Maltese, Andalusian, Majorca, Italian and Poitou. 
The Andalusian comes from Spain, and was first 
introduced into this country as a gift from the 
King of Spain to George Washington, and also later 
was imported into Kentucky. In color, it ranges 
from gray to white with an occasional blue one. 
It stands from 14 to 15 hands high, is comparatively 
heavy boned, and shows very good conformation in 
regard to the head and ears. It is not popular on 
account of its color. The Maltese is a small animal 
coming from the island of Malta. Its color is 
black or brown. It has a well-formed head, but is 
light boned and for this reason it is not popular, 
except for breeding light mules for use in mines or 
under similar conditions. 

The Catalonian is another Spanish breed, and 
was the first introduced into America by Henry 
Clay. These jacks are of a good black color 
with white points, and possess excellent style 
and action. They are also heavy boned, and stand 
from 14^ to 15 hands high. On account of their 
desirable color and excellent quality, they are very 
popular. Most of the best characteristics which 
have been bred into the native American jack have 
come from the Catalonian cross. The Majorca 
jack comes from the Island of Majorca. This is the 
largest of all the imported jacks, often standing 16 
hands high, and possesses the greatest weight and 
heaviest bone of all the jack breeds. The Italian 
jack has been imported into this country in con- 
siderable numbers. It is the smallest of all the 
breeds, and correspondingly lower in price. Al- 
though it is a somewhat blocky and heavy-boned 
animal, it is too small for use in producing the type 
of mules which the American market demands. 



206 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

The Poitou is a French breed and has been greatly 
improved in that country by intelligent selection 
and breeding. Importations into America have 
been relatively small on account of the large de- 
mand for them in France and Spain. It is the 
higliest priced of all the European breeds, in- 
dividuals often selling in France for $3,000. 

MAMMOTH JACKS 

Notwithstanding the excellent qualities of many 
of the imported breeds of jacks, it is the opinion 
of most American breeders that better mules w^ill 
result from the use of the best type of the American- 
bred jack with a properly blended imported an- 
cestry. The best strains of American-bred jacks 
trace their ancestry to Mammoth, a jack early im- 
ported into Kentucky and generally conceded to be 
the best individual ever brought to America. The 
judicious blending of this blood with imported 
animals of other breeds and careful selection 
through a good many generations have served to 
fix type and color quite definitely, and has de- 
veloped the breed known as the ]\Iammoth jack. 
It is purely an American breed, from individuals 
of Avhich most American mules are now produced. 

The hinny is the product of crossing the stallion 
with the jennet. It resembles the mule in most 
respects except that it is usually smaller, and has 
no particular utility which is not possessed in an 
equal degree by the mule. It is quite common in 
the West, and is used in mines and for similar 
purposes. Extravagant claims have been made at 
times concerning the strength and endurance of 
these animals, but these qualities are probably no 
more pronounced than in the mule. 



MULES ARE PROFITABLE 207 

BREEDING TYPE OF MARE 

The mule is an unnatural animal, being a hybrid, 
and the product of crossing the jack with the mare. 
It is incapable of producing young, and for this rea- 
son it is impossible to improve the animal through 
the ordinary means of selection by which other 
types of animals are improved. It has been pos- 
sible, as explained before, to improve and develop 
the jack by selection and intelligent crossing. The 
method by which the production of good mules is 
made possible is by the mating of the best type of 
jack with an approved type of mare. In order to 
select this stock intelligently, the breeder must 
have a knowledge, first, of what the market recog- 
nizes as the most approved type of mule, and, 
second, just what characteristics the mule is likely 
to inherit from his sire and what characteristics 
from his dam. Formerly, the requirements of the 
vSouth, which was the principal mule market, were 
for rather small animals of a good deal of quality 
and life, and the lightness of bone and smallness 
of hoof belonging to this type of mule was not con- 
sidered a handicap. Breeders used small or medium- 
sized mares, often with a large proportion of coach- 
ing or standard blood, possessing plenty of life and 
spirit. The mules resulting from crosses of this 
kind are tough, wiry, capable of great endurance 
and altogether a very serviceable type of animal. 
The market requirements of the present day de- 
mand a quite dififerent type of animal, although in 
the cotton fields of the South there is still a large 
demand for animals of the type just described. 
These are known in the markets as cotton mules. 
The draft mule, which now commands the highest 
price of any type, must be heavier, larger and 



208 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

bulkier throughout. He must stand i6 hands high, 
weigh from 1,200 pounds up, the heavier the better, 
and must be heavy boned in proportion to the in- 
creased weight. To produce a mule of this type, 
heavy draft mares must be used. The danger of 
making a cross of this kind is of sacrificing quality 
and conformation to mere size; and the production 
of one of these heavy mules so as to insure con- 
siderable quality and heavy enough bone to make 
an ideal animal requires very careful judgment in 
the selection of the mare. It is easy to select a 
mare which has a blocky build, large feet and heavy, 
strong legs, but this type of mare is very likely to 
lack quality and life. Where it is impossible to 
choose the ideal mare for this purpose a lot of at- 
tention should be given to the quality. Above all 
she should be of an ambitious disposition and have 
good life and good action. Generally speaking, the 
mule inherits from its sire the characteristics of the 
neck and head and in a marked degree its legs and 
feet, while its body conforms quite strongly to that 
of its dam. It can readily be seen that breeding a 
mare of markedly light bone and small feet to a 
jack simply tends to intensify in the mule the light 
bone and small footed characteristics of the jack. 
It used to be said that the size of a mule's foot was 
a matter of little importance, that his hoof was 
naturally small and compact and his legs light and 
slender. But when a 1,200 to 1,400-pound body is 
bred upon feet and legs intended to support only 
900 or 1,000 pounds, the tendency toward strains 
and permanent impairment is introduced and in- 
tensified from the very beginning, while if the mare 
has heavy, strong legs and large, firm feet, the mule 
will have some chance of inheriting in part these 
desirable characteristics. 



MULES ARE PROFITABLE 209 

CARE AND MANAGEMENT 

The old idea that any sort of an ill-conditioned 
misfit of a mare belonging in no particular market 
class, and having nothing to commend her as a 
breeding animal, should be bred to a jack with the 
expectation of producing a good mule, has been 
entirely discredited by the practice of modern breed- 
ers. It is to this erroneous idea of the nature of the 
animal that the mule owes all of his reputation for 
an evil disposition. As a matter of fact, mules which 
have reasonably good breeding back of them, and 
which have been managed in an intelligent manner 
in being broken to work, are gentler and easier to 
handle and are more trustworthy than the average 
horse. Nearly every case of trickiness or vicious- 
ness on the part of a mule can be traced either to a 
similar tendency on the part of its dam, or to abuse 
and mismanagement while breaking the animal to 
work. The attitude of careless or ignorant people 
toward the mule in assuming that he is naturally 
a vicious animal, and one to be subdued by abuse 
has been responsible for more permanently ruined 
animals than any other one cause. The mule, more 
than any other animal, requires kind and intelligent 
treatment, and will respond to this, while any abuse 
during its training period will probably always 
show its effect upon the disposition of the animal. 

Where mules are raised under farm conditions, 
it is usually possible to handle the young colts 
almost from the time of their birth, and it is wise 
to do this and accustom them to being handled as 
early as possible. It will frequently be necessary 
to tie the young colts up when their mothers are 
to be worked, and they can easily be accustomed to 
the use of the halter while very young, so that later 



21 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

the task of breaking- them to lead will be insig- 
nificant. The general care of the mule colt does 
not differ materially from that of raising horse 
colts. Generally, it is less liable to the diseases 
which ordinarily affect horse colts, is less liable to 
injury from accident because it will usually be 
found amply able to take care of itself, and shows 
a greater intelligence in extricating itself from dan- 
gerous situations than the ordinary horse colt. 
W^here barbed wire pastures are used, it is very 
seldom that a young mule is injured in the wire, 
while it may be put down as almost an impossibility 
to raise five or six horse colts under these condi- 
tions without one or more of them being per- 
manently injured by the wire. 

LIBERAL FEEDING A NECESSITY 

It is frequently stated that mules grow and de- 
velop and perform their labor on less feed than is 
necessary for horses. The truth of this idea is 
to be seriously doubted. It is very unlikely that 
the average mule will perform a given amount of 
work on less feed than the average horse of the 
same weight would consume in performing the 
same work. However this may be, it is certain 
that the best development of the growing animal 
calls for liberal feeding. Under farm conditions, 
it is almost always necessary to work the dam dur- 
ing a considerable part of the summer, and un- 
usually good care and feeding should be given her 
in order to provide for a liberal flow of milk. The 
colt will learn to eat a little bran when it is only a 
few weeks old, and a feed box should be provided 
and some crushed or ground grain, preferably oats, 
should be kept where the young animals can eat a 



MULES ARE PROFITABLE 211 

few mouthfuls whenever they will. In cases where 
the dam is found to be not a good brood mare and 
having an insufficient milk supply, it is a compar- 
atively easy task to teach the colt to drink milk. A 
pint of cow's milk night and morning will mate- 
rially aid in preventing retarded growth. 

Five months is usually considered the proper 
age for weaning, and the colt at this time should 
be accustomed to eating considerable hay and 
grain, and should receive quite a variety in order 
that the withdrawal of the milk ration will not 
tend toward stunted growth. If some fresh, green 
pasture is available at the weaning period, it will 
be found useful in keeping the colts in good condi- 
tion. This period, however, is usually in the fall, 
and unless special provision has been made to have 
some good fall pasture the young animal will prob- 
ably have to depend upon the ordinary barnyard 
feeding. Alfalfa or clover are excellent feeds for 
this period, and, in fact, during the first winter. 
The grain ration should consist of oats and cracked 
corn, if the forage is of a leguminous character, 
such as alfalfa, or of oats and bran if no legu- 
minous hays are used. Liberal feeding, good shelter 
and plenty of exercise during the first winter and 
plenty of good pasture during the following sum- 
mer will keep the young colt growing, and bring 
out the maximum development. 

BREAKING THE MULE TO WORK 

The best time to break colts to harness is a 
matter of some dispute among breeders. If the 
breeder is disposed to place the young animals at 
hard work as soon as they are trained to the har- 
ness, then he had better wait until they are four 



212 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

years old. They may very well be broken to 
harness at the age of two, but at this time they are 
too young to be placed at steady hard work. A 
little light driving or an occasional half day's light 
work in the field will be of benefit to them, but over- 
work at this time will result in stunted growth. At 
three years old they are shedding their teeth, and 
on this account are peculiarly unfitted for any severe 
work. If they have been broken to harness as two- 
year-olds, the light work and driving may be kept 
up while they are three-year-olds, but under no 
circumstances should they be placed at hard work 
this year. Special attention should be given to 
their feeding at this time, because frequently 
while they are losing their teeth their mouths 
will become so sore as to make it impossible for 
them to chew dry, hard grain. If circumstances 
are such that the animals will be put to work as 
soon as they are broken to harness, by all means 
wait until they are four years old. They will be 
able to do a lot of work this year, and when they are 
five years old will be ready for complete service of 
all kinds. 

The mule's ears are much more sensitive than 
those of the horse, and it is very easy during the 
training period to develop permanently a bad habit 
on the part of the animal by careless or rough 
handling of its head. A careless blow with a whip 
or with the hand across the mule's ears may instill 
into his mind a fear that years will not overcome. 
Some people have made the practice of seizing 
an unruly mule by the ears to hold him, thus 
taking advantage of this sensitiveness, but this is 
never a safe practice, as the disposition of the 
animal may be permanently ruined by such treat- 
ment. 



MULES ARE PROFITABLE 213 

By the careful selection of breedmg mares and 
by intelligent care and feeding of the growing 
animals, a finished product is developed at four or 
five years old, which will command, on an aver- 
age, higher prices upon the market than a horse 
colt raised under similar conditions. The risk is 
considerably less, and the expense no greater, while 
the demand for this type of animals is continuously 
increasing, and will undoubtedly do so for years to 
come. It will pay enterprising farmers to thor- 
oughly investigate the possibilities of mule raising 
with a view to engaging in it for the production of 
market types of animals. 



CHAPTER XV 

Baby Beef 

WHAT IT IS 

The production of the type of meat animals 
known as baby beef is a development of compar- 
atively recent years, and has been brought about 
by the more intensive conditions of modern 
American agriculture. In the old days of cheap 
land and free grass, the idea was to raise cattle 
until they reached the age of four or five years 
before marketing. ^lodern conditions require that 
the animal intended for slaughter shall receive the 
maximum amount of growth and be ready for the 
block as young as possible and with the minimum 
of expense for labor and feed in the process of its 
development. It requires much more feed and 
much more time and keeps the money locked up 
for a longer period to maintain beef cattle until 
they are three or four years old before marketing 
them than if they are given a forced rapid growth 
and marketed younger, and the returns must be cor- 
respondingly large in order to pay a profit and in- 
terest on the initial investment for the longer period. 
]\Iarket conditions in recent years are such that 
the younger animals command the higher price, 
and so when the difference in the amount of feed 
and labor is considered, the balance under farm 
conditions is likely to be in favor of the shorter 
feeding period. Under conditions where cattle 
could subsist upon the free grass of the open range 
for an indefinite period, it mattered little to the 

2U 



BABY BEEF 215 

owner whether they were sold at three or at five 
years of age, but under farm conditions the rela- 
tive length of the maintenance period often means 
the difference between a net profit and net loss. 
If the animals can be brought to nearly the same 
weight at the age of from 15 to 24 months, all of the 
feed for maintenance is saved, but half the amount 
of labor is expended and the money represented in 
the investment is used for but half the period. 
These are important considerations in growing 
live stock of any kind. 

This necessity for marketing finished beef animals 
at. the earliest possible date has given rise to a dis- 
tinct market class which is known as baby beef. 
Generally speaking, a calf marketed any time after 
the veal age and under the age of 24 months in a 
well-fattened and highly finished condition is classi- 
fied as baby beef. 

FASTER GAINS POSSIBLE 

The feeding of the best type of baby beef re- 
quires a high degree of skill on the part of the 
feeder. One of the greatest economies in feeding 
baby beef lies in the fact that young animals will 
make gains upon a relatively smaller ration than 
can be done by older animals. Records show that 
each succeeding year up to the age of five re- 
quires nearly 50 per cent more feed for the 
same amount of gain than was used the pre- 
ceding year. Tests made at the Illinois ex- 
periment station show that the cost of pro- 
ducing gains on yearlings was 37 per cent greater 
than on calves, and 18 per cent more on two-year- 
olds than on yearlings. In these days of high- 
priced feed, this rapid gain which can be produced 



2l6 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

by early feeding is a very strong argument in favor 
of fitting beef animals for the block before they 
are two-year-olds. This ability of young animals 
to make greater use of their feed lies in the fact 
that nearly half of the feed consumed is used in 
maintaining weight already gained. The larger 
and heavier the animal the more energ}% and con- 
sequently the more feed is required to keep up the 
body heat, build up broken-down tissues, keep the 
blood in circulation and perform the bodily func- 
tions incidental to maintenance. 

TYPES AND KINDS 

In the production of early baby beef, calves which 
have run with their dams during the first five or 
six months furnish the best foundation for high- 
class feeders. Such calves are usually in better 
flesh at weaning time and make more thrifty and 
vigorous growth during their early life and have 
developed better feeding capacities than calves 
which have been hand-fed the greater part of this 
period. Where the calves are raised primarily to 
be fed for baby beef and it is desired to market 
them at the earliest possible age, feeding should 
begin as soon as the young calf can be induced to 
eat, since the successful finishing of baby beef is 
essentially a forcing process. It is important that 
the maximum amount of growth and weight should 
be secured in the shortest possible time regardless 
of considerations of the after effect, which would 
be imperative if the animal were kept for 
breeding purposes. The sole object of feeding and 
managing should be to mature a calf as young as 
possible and with a high degree of quality and 
finish. The best baby beef type is the low-down 



BABY BEEF 217 

blocky, compact form which is typical only of the 
beef breeds, or typical in a marked degree only in 
animals having a large preponderance of clearly 
defined beef type. The Aberdeen-Angus is un- 
questionably the one breed best suited to the pro- 
duction of baby beef animals. In conformation and 
type, this breed corresponds most nearly to the 
ideal, and its early maturing characteristics make 
it especially desirable for the feeding and finishing 
of young animals. Calves showing a large per- 
centage of Hereford or Shorthorn blood also make 
excellent feeders. Frequently the dual-purpose 
type will finish very smoothly, while the dairy 
breeds have the least adaptation to this use, al- 
though large numbers of them are annually finished 
for the baby beef market. 

SOURCES OF STOCK 

The closing out of many of the large cattle 
ranches of the West in recent years has thrown upon 
the markets large numbers of high-grade range cows 
with calves following them. This stock is usually 
marketed in late summer after having had the 
benefit of the best summer grass available upon 
the range, and are usually in excellent condition. 
The calves will be found thrifty and of large frame 
and good feeding capacity and average, perhaps, 400 
pounds in weight. This class of cattle is placed 
upon the market when the calves are at the proper 
age for weaning, and many thousands of them have 
been purchased by the middle western farmers to 
be finished for baby beef. The cumulative effect of 
30 years or more of pure-bred sires upon the west- 
ern ranges shows itself in the high-class cross-bred 
Herefords and Shorthorns which are now yearly 
offered in the markets of Chicago, Kansas City and 



2l8 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

Omaha. This excellent beef type is especially 
noticeable in the calves marketed and shows to its 
best advantage in the finishing of calves for baby 
beef. Their active life upon the open range, usually 
with an abundance of feed, has given them a good 
frame and has developed a large feeding capacity, 
and these characteristics are made use of when the 
calf is put in the feed lot in the fall. 

Another source from which large numbers of 
calves are drawn for early feeding are the dairy 
farms wdiich are so situated as not to be able to 
raise the calves to maturity. These farms are 
found especially in dairy districts contiguous to 
large cities which furnish a market for all the milk 
produced at such prices that it is often thought un- 
profitable to use the milk for feeding calves. A 
good many of the calves from these dairies are sold 
as veal, but large numbers are also fed on milk for 
a short time, until they are able to eat grain and 
other concentrated feeds. They may be purchased 
at very reasonable prices as soon as they are old 
enough to eat grain and are taken to farms in the 
grain-growing districts. It is often possible for the 
farmer w^ho is favorably situated for feeding to buy 
one or more carloads of calves each year in his own 
immediate neighborhood by picking up a few in 
each place. The high price of land and the grow- 
ing scarcity of grazing land makes it imperative 
that stock of this kind shall be finished and mar- 
keted immediately, and so the greater number of 
these animals purchased at random throughout the 
country are fattened and marketed under two years 
old. 

As has already been explained, the very best class 
of baby beef is produced from calves of the most 
pronounced beef type. It does not necessarily fol- 



BABY BEEF 219 

low, however, that only one extreme type will re- 
turn a profit from the feed yard. Calves from dual 
purpose breeds, such as milking Shorthorns or Red 
Polled, frequently finish very smoothly and make 
good use of their feed. The purely dairy breeds 
can usually, with careful feeding and good care, be 
fattened at good profit. Holstein calves are espe- 
cially adaptable to this purpose when they are 
handled from the time of birth with the idea of 
marketing them for beef. The heavy grain feed- 
ing forces a rapid growth and a corresponding pro- 
duction of fat, so that the pronounced dairy type 
does not predominate until 15 or 16 months old, and 
by this time they should be ready for market. 

HOW TO FEED 

It is unquestionably true that the most rapid 
growth and the best development of the beef type 
can be produced by beginning comparatively heavy 
grain feeding while the calves are still with their 
dams. This grain feeding should be begun as soon 
as the calves will eat, when they may be given a 
little bran and crushed oats. They will learn to eat 
shelled corn at an early age, and this should be 
gradually introduced, after which the grain ration 
should be about one-half shelled corn, one-fourth 
oats and one-fourth bran. There is no single grain 
calculated to form a more satisfactory supplement 
to the milk diet than oats, and if one grain only is 
available it should be this one. Its high protein 
content in connection with the well-balanced ration 
furnished by milk serves to build a good frame and 
tends toward muscular development. Shelled corn 
is a fattening feed, and when used in connection 
with the oats and milk completes a ration which 
includes the maximum amount of muscle and fat 



220 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

formation which is so desirable in this kind of feed- 
ing. This grain feeding may be begun when the 
calf is about two months old and gradually in- 
creased until as much is given as the animal will 
consume. The calf should be weaned when it is 
five or six months old. The weaning time will 
generally be in late summer or early autumn. At 
this time, the feed should be varied so that it will 
include oil meal or cottonseed meal. The percent- 
age of shelled corn may be increased at this time 
also. A satisfactory grain mixture consists of 80 
per cent shelled corn, 10 per cent oats and 10 per 
cent linseed oil meal. Calves at this age will con- 
sume from 17 to 20 pounds of grain per 1,000 
pounds of live weight. As the milk ration is with- 
drawn, it will be well to take particular pains to 
provide green feed. There will usually be clover 
or some other freshly mown hay available for feed 
at the weaning period in case pasture is short. Green 
sweet corn or ordinary field corn may be cut and fed 
with advantage at this time, gradually leading up 
to dry, shocked corn which it may be desirable to 
feed later in the winter. It is best to keep the 
calves on green pasture as late in the fall as it is 
possible while at the same time keeping them well 
supplied with all the grain that they will eat. As 
the pasture is used up, it would be replaced with 
increasing amounts of roughage, and the change 
from pasture conditions to the dry feed lot will 
thus be made without any setback to growth and 
without any serious derangement of the animals' 
digestive systems. 

FORAGE AND SUCCULENCE 

Alfalfa, clover or cowpeas form most satisfactory 
forage for winter feeding. Corn fodder is in com- 



BABY BEEF 221 

mon use in many sections of the middle West and is 
greatly relished by the calves. It has been the 
experience of certain Indiana farmers who make a 
practice of feeding clover hay and corn fodder that 
the calves will consume bright, well-cured clean 
fodder in preference to clover and make excellent 
gains upon it. The experience of feeders who have 
practiced shredding corn fodder and storing it in 
large stacks for winter feeding also bears out this 
statement. Shredded fodder in large stacks is likely 
to heat a little and undergo a mild fermentation, 
and it is the opinion of some feeders that this adds 
both to palatability and digestibility. While it is 
true that the larger percentage of calves finished 
for baby beef do not receive any succulent feed dur- 
ing the winter, it is equally true that feeds of this 
character introduced into the ration return large 
profits upon its cost. The value of succulent feed 
is not so much in its intrinsic fattening properties 
as in its tendency to regulate the digestive system 
of the animal in such a way that a larger percent- 
age of the grain and hay is transformed into fat 
and muscle. In other words, it enables the animal 
to make better use of the concentrated feeds and 
forage given. The liberal use of succulent feeds 
tends to produce the juiciness of meat and the high 
finish of the animal which is so characteristic of 
first-class baby beef. Corn silage is one of the 
most satisfactory feeds of this character, and one 
of the most easily available throughout the corn 
belt. Root crops of all kinds, such as sugar beets 
and mangel-wurzels are also valuable, and in sugar- 
growing districts beet pulp from the factories 
makes a very excellent succulent ration. Calves 
which have been raised by their dams, and have 
been fed in the manner just described should be 



222 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

ready for market at the ag-e of from ii to 12 months, 
and should weigh at this time anywhere from 800 
to 1,000 pounds. 

MANAGEMENT OF HAND-RAISED CALVES 

Calves which have been raised on skimmed milk 
will usually be slower in maturing and will not 
ordinarily be marketed under 15 to 18 months old. 
The method of handling hand-raised calves is es- 
sentially the same as when they have followed their 
dams. The hand-raised calf at the weaning age will 
usually have a larger frame and carry less flesh 
than the calf which has had its natural ration of 
whole milk. The natural tendency of the calf at 
this age is to develop frame and muscle, and to off- 
set this tendency a heavy percentage of fat-forming 
feed should be given. 

HEIFERS FINISH WELL 

Heifer calves have a particular adaptation for 
feeding for baby beef. When fed for this purpose 
they take on flesh very rapidly and acquire as 
good a finish than steers ; in some cases better. 
There is no discrimination against them when of- 
fered for sale in the markets, and their meat is equal 
to that of the best steers. The large numbers of 
w^estern cattle offered for sale every fall has always 
thrown numbers of heifers on the market, and 
sometimes causes serious depreciation in the price 
of this class of animals. The increased feeding of 
baby beef in all sections of the corn belt offers a 
very satisfactory outlet for this class of stock, and 
indicates the most satisfactory and profitable 
method for marketing it. 



BABY BEEF 

FINISH AND QUALITY 



223 



The object to be most emphasized at all times 
in feeding baby beef is the securing of quality and 
finish in connection with rapid and economical 
gains. The value of a high finish is apparent by 
the way in which it influences values. Suppose a 
steer is marketed at the age of 18 months and at 
the weight of 1,200 pounds. Every fourth of a cent 




HEATING WATER SUPPLY 



difference in price per pound makes a difference of 
$3 in the value of the steer. A difference 
of one cent per pound makes a difference of 
$12 in the selling price. If this same steer, be- 
cause of low finish, sells at 4 cents per pound while 
another of high finish sells for 5^ cents per pound, 
the difference in price between the two steers will 
amount to $18. This upon a carload of 20 would 
amount to $360, and might mean the difference 
between net profit and net loss on the feeding 
operations. 



224 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

MARKETING 

The time for marketing baby beef is in the sum- 
mer or late spring at a period when packers do not 
desire the heavy carcasses of older animals coming 
from a long feeding period in the feed lots. It is 
not always possible to market the baby beef at this 
time, because, like all other types of fat animals, 
they cannot be profitably held for any great length 
of time after they are finished. For this reason, it 
is necessary to market in early spring calves which 
were born early the previous spring, and which 
have been forced constantly throughout the year. 
The hand-raised calves purchased from the dairy 
districts lend themselves very well to marketing 
when market demands are favorable for this type 
of beef. These calves are fed heavily during the 
winter, and are turned upon pasture as early in the 
spring as is practicable, the heavy grain feeding 
being continued. They will make rapid gains and 
acquire excellent finish and quality during this 
forcing period of their second summer, after the 
winter feeding with its long-continued use of dry 
forage. The change is a very wholesome one, how- 
ever, and extremely cheap gains may be expected 
from this last period of the feeding season. They 
should be finished by July or August, being from 
17 to 18 months old at this time, and may be thus 
marketed at the season when the packers demand 
light carcasses. Beef of this character is in 
great demand in the summer, and prices are most 
likely to be high at this time. 

The feeding of baby beef may be found profitable 
under conditions where it is not possible to main- 
tain steers until they have reached the age to be fed 
for heavy beef. Its greatest utility is found upon 



BABY BEEF 225 

farms having a limited amount of pasturage, but 
where it is not possible to keep breeding animals 
in sufficient numbers to raise heavy steers for mar- 
ket trade. The ease and relative cheapness with 
which gains are secured upon young animals and 
the relative high prices which the market has 
offered in recent years gives this type of feeding 
under present farm conditions a decided advantage 
over the old plan of fattening steers. 

INDIANA EXPERIENCE 

During recent seasons a considerable number 
of western calves were finished for baby beef in cen- 
tral Indiana. Among the more successful feeders is 
Ed Flannigan of Franklin county. In 1908 Mr. 
Flannigan purchased 30 head of high-grade Here- 
ford calves in Kansas City, shipped them to his 
Indiana farm, and fed them out for baby beef. The 
results were so satisfactory that the following fall 
he purchased 60 head at the same market for him- 
self, and something like 600 head for neighboring 
farmers in Franklin county. The 60 head which 
Mr. Flannigan retained for his own feeding were 
unusually high-grade Herefords. They were un- 
branded, which showed that they probably came 
from Kansas or Oklahoma stock farms. When 
seen in March, in the feeding pens, they were in 
most excellent condition, and their quality showed 
to the very best advantage. It would have taken 
an expert to distinguish them from pure-bred Here- 
fords. As to the details of handling these cattle 
from the time they were taken from their mothers, 
and the feeds and feeding methods used, Mr. Flan- 
nigan stated that the calves averaged 400 pounds 
when purchased in Kansas City, and that they cost 
him $4.75 per 100 pounds. 



226 PROFITABLE STOCK RiMSING 

This original cost, however, was increased to ap- 
proximately $5 per 100 pounds by the time the ex- 
pense of shipping- from Kansas City to Franklin, 
Ind., was added. They were about four or five 
months old when they arrived upon Mr. Flannigan's 
farm late in October. In order to make the change 
from milk to dry feed less abrupt, he placed them 
upon blue grass pasture for a short period, gradu- 
ally introducing clean, new clover hay where they 
could get it, and learn to eat it. Upon this hay, after a 
short time, he sprinkled small quantities of cracked 
corn, so that the calves would eat some of it with 
the hay, and thus gradually acquire a taste for corn. 
Later, he fed them small amounts of corn in the 
shock, so that they learned to eat fodder. By the 
time the calves were placed in the dry lot, some 
time in November, they had learned to eat all kinds 
of roughage as well as corn. 

Practically all the feed they received was pro- 
duced on the farm, the only feed purchased being 
some amounts of cottonseed meal. Corn fodder 
and clover hay formed the roughage ration, and 
cracked corn, with occasionally a little cottonseed 
meal, was the grain ration. The calves made con- 
tinued, steady gains from the very day they ar- 
rived upon the farm. The fodder given them had 
been cut and placed in large shocks in the very best 
of condition, and came out all through the winter 
bright, green and free from dust. It was greatly 
relished by the stock. Although good, clean clover 
hay was available for the calves every day, they 
invariably ate their corn fodder first, apparently 
relishing it more than the hay. 

The amount of corn was gradually increased until 
the calves were given all the grain that they would 
clean up every day. At the period when they were 



BABY BEEF 22/ 

eating most, the 60 head received about seven 
bushels per day of shelled and cracked corn, or 
about 6j4 pounds per head. They were given all 
the roughage they would consume, and no especial 
record was kept of the amount consumed at dif- 
ferent parts of the feeding period. Basing an es- 
timate of the total amount to be consumed from 
November to May, inclusively, upon the amounts 
which he had already fed up to the middle of 
March, Mr. Flannigan stated that about 21 loads 
of clover hay, and all the fodder from 30 acres of 
unusually heavy corn would be consumed by the 60 
head of calves. Fresh water was available to the 
animals at all times, both day and night. A tank 
heater was used in winter to keep the temperature 
up. 

The calves spent the winter for the most part in 
the open air. There was a large, straw-covered 
shed, at one side of the corral, and the stock were 
free to enter this shed at any time. They seemed, 
however, to prefer the outside, even in the very 
coldest nights of winter, except on two or three 
occasions when a wet, heavy snow was falling. 
The hogs following the cattle had shelled corn and 
hominy grits where they could have access to them 
in a pen apart from the cattle. Very rapid gains 
were obtained from the hog feeding part of the 
proposition. Approximately, two pounds per head 
per day represents the gain of the cattle through- 
out the feeding period. Mr. Flannigan sold these 
cattle in May, and the average weight at this time 
was about 750 pounds per head. In addition to the 
cash returns, which gave a very high rate of gain, 
both for the corn and forage consumed, a large 
amount of valuable manure was available for use 
Upon the land. After the close of the feeding period 



228 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

last year, Mr. Flannigan applied a heavy coating of 
manure to 70 acres of corn land, and top-dressed 
30 acres of wheat. This year there was sufficient 
manure to cover about 100 acres of land with a 
rich top-dressing. This cumulative effect of con- 
tinuous feeding, whereby the accretions of one year's 
feeding serves to materially increase the yield of 
next year's crop is by no means the least impor- 
tant feature to be considered in computing the 
total results of a year's operations. 



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CHAPTER XVI 

Hothouse Lambs 

The production of hothouse lambs on farms 
within reasonable proximity to large cities has 
become one of the important specialized forms of 
animal husbandry within recent years. By hot- 
house lambs, which are also called milk lambs or 
winter lambs, is meant lambs which are born in 
late autumn or early winter, and so managed that 
a rapid forced growth is secured and the animals 
marketed while they are still being suckled by their 
dams. The meat of such lambs is juicy, tender 
and of a delicate flavor and commands relatively 
high prices in certain city markets. The principal 
consumers of this product are the large hotels, 
fashionable clubs and wealthy families of large 
cities. 

EQUIPMENT AND MANAGEMENT 

Success in this Industry, perhaps more than, in 
any other branch of stock raising, requires the 
proper equipment for handling the stock and pro- 
tecting it in winter. It also requires skill and judg- 
ment in breeding and feeding in a very marked 
degree. The ewes must be bred so that the lambs 
will arrive at the desired time, which is seldom 
later than the first week in December and may be 
any time in November. The ewes should have a 
marked tendency toward being heavy milkers, so 
that the young lambs will grow rapidly and become 
fat at the proper time for marketing. Good shelter 

229 



230 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

must be provided to prevent severe losses of the 
Iambs at the time of birth and to insure against 
shrinkage on account of cold weather during growl- 
ing time. 

BREEDING 

The Dorset sheep, or cross-bred Dorset Merino, 
are the most suitable of the best-known American 
sheep for breeding for winter lambs, because they 
will breed at any season of the year, and the ar- 
rival of the lambs can be timed to suit the desires 
of the owner. Professor Shaw, at the IMinnesota 
experiment station, crossed ordinary range ewes 
with Dorset rams, and then selected from this off- 
spring the ewe lambs which showed markedly the 
early breeding tendencies of the Dorset for the 
second cross, and at the end of three generations 
had established a very successful type of sheep for 
the production of winter lambs. In addition to the 
hardy qualities of the common western sheep, this 
stock showed the early breeding tendencies and 
quick-maturing qualities of the Dorset. This 
breeding procedure may be safely recommended to 
any farmer who desires to develop the best type of 
breeding ewes for raising hothouse lambs. An ex- 
cellent breeding practice is the crossing of ewes of 
the type just described with Hampshire or Cleve- 
land rams. This will tend to produce unusually 
large lambs, and while the cross would be unfavor- 
able if the lambs were to be kept to maturity, it 
will tend toward the production of lambs of a mar- 
ketable weight in a shorter period of time than by 
any other method. The more common practice is 
the crossing of this type of ewes with Shropshire 
rams. 



HOTHOUSE LAMBS 23 1 

FEEDING AND CARE 

The management of ewes previous to lambing 
requires no special methods not ordinarily used in 
the general care of breeding ewes. Throughout 
the autumn they should be allowed the range of 
the farm, grazing wherever feed is to be found. In 
case the pasturage is insufficient to keep the ewes in 
the very best of condition, a liberal quantity of clover 
hay or sheaf oats, or some other feed having a high 
protein content, should be given. It is not essen- 
tial to have the ewes extremely fat at this time, 
but they should be kept in a strong, vigorous con- 
dition, without which it will be impossible for them 
to produce thrifty, quick-growing lambs. If they 
are given the freedom of the farm, they will obtain 
for themselves the exercise so essential. If, how- 
ever, for any reason, it is necessary to keep the ewes 
in a small mclosure, some provision should be made 
for plenty of exercise. As lambing time approaches 
the ration given should include more and more of 
feeds calculated to produce a heavy flow of milk. 
It will be necessary to have the milk production of 
the ewes at the maximum from the time the lambs 
are born. This change from ordinary feeding to 
feeding for a heavy milk flow cannot be made sud- 
denly, so preparation for it should begin several 
weeks before the actual time of lambing. In prob- 
ably no other line of stock feeding, with the pos- 
sible exception of the production of market milk, 
is the value of succulent feed so apparent as in the 
raising of hothouse lambs. The silo is a valuable, 
although not indispensable adjunct to this industry. 
Succulence may consist either of corn silage or of 
any of the common root crops which are in use for 
stock feeding. A liberal supply of leguminous hay 



232 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

will be found almost indispensable in feeding for 
this heavy milk production. If it is impossible to 
supply this feed, by all means see that the ration 
contains a very high protein content. This can be 
furnished by oats, bran and similar feeds. The 
ration for ewes at this time will not differ materially 
from the feeds given in a dairy for forcing high 
milk production. 

SHELTER 

Good, warm shelter is essential, and ample pro- 
vision should be made for keeping all the animals 
under shelter during most of the growing period of 
the lambs. One man can usually handle from 125 
to 175 head of ewes very easily if stabling facilities 
are properly arranged. Not only must the quarters 
be warm, but they must be dry and well ventilated. 
It is impossible for lambs or any other young 
animals to make their best growth in damp, dark, 
ill-ventilated barns or basements such as are some- 
times used for this purpose. The basement of the 
barn may,however,be arranged so as to form almost 
ideal quarters for the lambs if it has a south exposure 
so that the winter sunlight may be used to the best 
advantage. Ample bedding of clean, dry straw 
should be provided, and the ventilation should em- 
brace some system which, while admitting plenty 
of fresh air, does not permit cold winter winds to 
enter at any time. Young lambs are singularly 
susceptible to the influence of temperature and may 
easily be fatally chilled. The details of feeding 
and managing of the ewes and lambs can be easily 
worked out if the ultimate object be kept in view. 
This object is to secure a forced growth of the 
young lambs from the moment of birth. Upon 



HOTHOUSE LAMBS 233 

farms where a surplus of cow's milk Is available, 
it will frequently pay to feed a liberal ration of this 
to the young lambs to supplement the milk ration 
furnished by the ewes. It is no great task to teach 
the young animals to drink, and this extra milk 
ration will have a marked effect in fitting the lambs 
for the market. At the earliest possible moment a 
grain ration should be added. If the lambs be 
given individual attention they may be taught to 
eat sifted oatmeal or ground barley and a little oil 
cake while very young. This is best fed by fixing 
a creep for the lambs so that they can have access 
to a trough containing some of this, mixed grain 
without being disturbed. 

A difficulty which is likely to be met when the 
sheep are kept closely confined under shelter, as is 
necessary for the growing of winter lambs, is that 
the older and stronger lambs are likely to rob the 
younger ones of their feed. This point should be 
watched and met by the prompt separation of the 
smaller and weaker lambs in pens by themselves. 
It will also require constant close attention to keep 
the young lambs free from stomach worms and 
other parasitic disorders. The ordinary well-known 
means of combating these pests will suffice equally 
well for young lambs of this character. The most 
effectual treatment for stomach worms and in- 
testinal parasites of all kinds is the administering 
of a small quantity of gasoline to each lamb sus- 
pected of infestation. The growing lambs will soon 
learn to nibble at fine, well-cured alfalfa or clover 
hay, and will consume considerable quantities of it 
if it is kept constantly available to them. These 
nibbling propensities may be taken advantage of 
in keeping the animals healthy by placing a small 
quantity of tobacco stems in one end of their man- 



234 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

gers so that they will occasionally eat a little of the 
weed, which tends to prevent parasitic troubles. 

MARKETING 

Profit from winter lambs is not entirely a ques- 
tion of breeding the sheep, of handling or manag- 
ing, or feeding or sheltering or protecting them in 
winter. Attentioh to all these factors would fail 
to produce a profit unless there is a reasonable 
proximity of market. It is obviously impossible 
to ship lambs which have not yet learned to subsist 
without their mother's milk to anv s^reat distance 
with the expectation of selling them for slaughter 
upon their arrival. The suffering of the animals 
under these conditions would be extreme, and the 
shrinkage would be so great as to wipe out any 
possible profits. A few years ago a Colorado sheep 
man shipped some ten-week-old lambs direct from 
the range to Kansas City with the expectation of 
selling them as milk lambs. After separating them 
from their dams, they were loaded into a car and 
forwarded as rapidly as possible, but the shrinkage 
was great and the lambs arrived in such poor con- 
dition as to be almost unsalable. The experiment 
was a total failure. The most successful producers 
of hothouse lambs are found under farm conditions 
where from 50 to 200 ewes can be handled. By 
continued selection of breeding stock a large per- 
centage of ewes can be secured which will bear 
twin lambs, and in this way the increase may be as 
high as 150 per cent. It is customary to slaughter 
these lambs upon the farm a few at a time and ship 
the dressed carcasses by express to city markets, 
the sales having been made previous to slaughter- 
ing the animals. In this way shrinkage is avoided. 



HOTHOUSE LAMBS 235 

Quality and high finish are essential to the securing 
of high prices for this product, and this method of 
marketing them avoids the loss of quality which is 
sure to follow the marketing of milk-fed animals on 
the hoof. 

WEIGHT FOR MARKET 

Winter lamb production is not a difficult proposi- 
tion, although the farmer must be prepared to take 
the best of care of his sheep, and must be willing 
to spend considerable extra effort upon details. 
Lambs properly managed and well nourished 
should gain one pound per day from the day of 
birth until marketed. Just what weight is best for 
marketing is a matter of some uncertainty, rang- 
ing from 45 to 60 pounds. 

PROFITS 

Since not infrequently as much as 25 cents per 
pound dressed weight is realized for them it can be 
seen that the profits are quite large. Each lamb 
may net from $8 to $12. These prices can be 
secured only by having the lambs ready for market 
at the time when the greatest demand exists. If 
they are finished too early and sold during the 
holiday season they come in competition with the 
immense quantities of poultry annually fattened for 
the Christmas market. On the other hand, if they 
are offered for sale too late in the season, they will 
have to compete with feed-lot lambs and thus the 
high prices will not be realized. This period be- 
tween the holidays and the first appearance of corn- 
fed lambs, including January and most of February, 
is the time when farmers should plan to market 



236 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

their hothouse lambs. In spite of the high per- 
centage of profit frequently made, this business has 
never yet been overdone, and there is a very con- 
siderable field for the industry upon farms within 
reasonable distances of the larger cities of this 
country. 



CHAPTER XVII 

Pastures for Grazing Farm Animals 

About one-third of the improved land in the 
United States is used for pasturage purposes. In 
other words, about 300,000,000 acres are devoted to 
the growing of grasses in the cultivated area. This 
does not take into account the millions of acres on 
the range. It is a pretty safe conclusion that very 
little of this land is yielding what it really ought to. 
Pasture improvement has been neglected. The 
selection of grass seeds has never been given very 
much attention. This comes about largely from the 
fact that the real value of the pasture is not recog- 
nized by very many people. Grass furnishes the 
cheapest and best feed for developing young 
animals, and it is most satisfactory for maintaining 
breeding stock. It is an exceedingly valuable ad- 
junct during the fattening period. It costs nothing 
to raise grasses when pasture is once started. The 
crop requires no particular attention, so that it is 
surprising that this problem has never been more 
thoroughly studied. 

In England the value of good pasture is recog- 
nized. An English farmer being asked how to secure 
a good turf, said : " Oh, that is easy. Prepare 
your ground well, be careful in selecting your seed 
mixture and then roll each spring for 300 years and 
you will get a good turf." Some of the best pas- 
tures in England are hundreds and hundreds of 
years old. 

The idea of permanent pasture is growing in this 
country. A quarter of a century ago very few 

237 



238 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

Americans would even consider a permanent pas- 
ture. They figured that land seeded to grass crops 
for two or three years should be plowed up and 
planted to corn. They thought that blue grass 
turf, or, in fact, turf of any of our grass crops, after 
the third or fourth year became sodbound, as they 
called it; that it must be torn up and plowed up. 
As a consequence the very few pieces of permanent 
pasture in existence were rather unsatisfactory, 
because of the fact that they were so new. Of late 
years, however, permanent pastures are being es- 
tablished on all the big farms in the country, and 
they are exceedingly satisfactory. Blue grass pas- 
tures 25 years old on a central Illinois farm will 
return more per acre than in any other crop. Al- 
most any farmer can devote 15 to 20 acres to a 
permanent blue grass pasture. It should be near 
the house and barn and it should be used almost 
exclusively for a night pasture for horses during 
the working season, a pasture for milch cows and 
probably a few sheep. Twenty acres will take care 
of all the work and milk animals on a i6o-acre farm 
and leave sufficient growth in the autumn to pro- 
vide winter grazing during the mild days. This 
pasture will start ten days to two weeks earlier in 
the spring than the ordinary pasture, so that the 
grazing period is very greatly extended, the supply 
of nutritious forage very large and the profit from 
permanent pasture great, to say nothing of the 
satisfaction of having a splendid piece of turf ad- 
jacent to the farm buildings. 

MANURING PASTURES 

Permanent pastures on the rich soils of the 
United States will not require much additional 
manuring. The droppings from the animals pas- 



PASTURES FOR GRAZING FARM ANIMALS 



239 



tured will add to the fertility, but it will do no 
harm to spread stable manure frequently over spots 
that do not appear to be doing well. This spread- 
ing can be done during the period of the year when 
crops occupy the rest of the farm and it is desir- 
able to have a place to spread the fresh manure. 
A little attention here and additional attention to 







RUN FOR SMALL PIGS 



prevent the growth of weeds in a permanent pas- 
ture will soon result in a solid mat of blue grass 
that will grow better and better with each succeed- 
ing year. 

Of course, all sections of the United States can- 
not grow blue grass. The semi-arid regions of the 
Northwest will have to depend upon brome grass 
and alfalfa and a few other forage plants for their 
pasture. Brome grass is proving a splendid pas- 
ture grass, even in the humid areas. It forms a 
compact sod, supplies a large amount of forage and 
will thrive under what are ordinarily considered 
adverse conditions. This grass should not be 
neglected in the regions above mentioned. 

In order to start a permanent pasture, the first 
thing to do is to clean up the ground designed for 
this purpose. If it is an old pasture, pretty thor- 
oughly manure the land by top dressing and apply 
the seeding of blue grass, or any other mixture 
that is desired. On uplands or dry hillsides, a mix- 



240 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

ture of seed consisting of timothy 4 pounds, orchard 
grass 3 pounds, meadow fescue 4 pounds, hard 
fescue 3 pounds, Kentucky blue grass 4 pounds, 
white clover 4 pounds, red clover 4 pounds, has 
been used with satisfaction in the eastern part of 
the United States. On moist soils 4 pounds of red 
top may take the place of the hard fescue. In the 
middle West and the far AVest these mixtures are 
not as popular. ]\Iore dependence is put on clovers, 
alfalfa, timothy and brome grass. In the East 
also it is customary to apply some commercial fer- 
tilizers, from 200 to 400 pounds of a mixture com- 
posed of 50 pounds of nitrate of soda, 150 pounds of 
tankage, 700 pounds of acid phosphate and 100 
pounds of muriate of potash being quite satisfactory. 

During the first season the land should not be 
pastured. The following spring, after the grass 
has started nicely, additional commercial fertilizers 
may be applied, or spots that do not appear per- 
fectly thrifty may be treated with a light top dress- 
ing of stable manure. Grass will soon take posses- 
sion of the ground, and will be ready for stock. 

It must be remembered that it never pays to 
overstock any pasture, particularly one that is just 
getting started. Let the animals run on it occa- 
sionally, but do not let them graze too closely. 

It must also be remembered that in the South Ber- 
muda grass is especially adapted to conditions ex- 
isting there. This takes the place of blue grass of 
the middle states and brome grass of the North- 
west. 

STARTING NEW PASTURES 

Where pastures are to be started on cultivated 
lands, several years are required to secure one that 



PASTURES FOR GRAZING FARM ANIMALS 24I 

IS satisfactory. Grass seed is usually applied to 
the ground in the fall, with wheat, or, if clover is to 
be added, the timothy, red top, etc., is seeded in 
the fall and clover applied in the spring. The first 
year nothing is obtained from the field except a 
crop of wheat. In the fall the land has to be mowed, 
to keep down the weeds. If the stand is good, the 
new pasture may be grazed very lightly the first 
fall, but stock should be kept off during the 
winter. The next season the grass ought to be 
fairly well established and capable of supporting 
a pretty fair number of farm animals. During this 
second season care must be taken to take off the 
stock at the first appearance of overpasturing. 
Then, too, if weeds of any kind appear, they must 
be mowed and disposed of before the seed ap- 
pears. By the end of the third or fourth year a 
start toward a permanent pasture is well under 
way. 

Another practice is to sow the grass seed alone 
without a nurse crop. The crop of fall grain is 
practically last, but, in many cases, particularly 
where there is apt to be a shortage of moisture, it 
is better to seed alone. The same precautions 
noted concerning weeds and overpasturing must 
be observed in this case. If the ground to be de- 
voted to pasture has a very compact and stubborn 
subsoil, it ought to be subsoil plowed before it is 
seeded to grass. The cost of this extra labor will 
be more than made up by the increased thrift of 
the pasture crop. 

Prof. W. J. Spillman states that there are three 
great pasture grasses in the United States — brome 
grass for the Northwest, blue grass for all the cen- 
tral area and Bermuda grass for the South. To this 
must, of course, be added alfalfa, which, although 



242 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

primarily a forage plant, will, after being well es- 
tablished, furnish excellent pasturage, if treated 
right. Professor Spillman also believes that while 
the seeding of mixtures such as are used in the old 
country have not been very popular in the United 
States, the practice ought not to be abandoned 
until a thorough tryout is given. Possibly some 
successful mixture will be found. If it is, it will 
mean a whole lot to the live stock industry of the 
country. 

The seeding of timothy and clover together seems 
to be one of the popular forms of starting a pas- 
ture in this country, to which other grasses ought 
to be added, particularly blue grass. In seeding 
grasses it must be remembered that, other things 
being equal, rich land requires more seed than poor 
land and wet land more than dry. A well-prepared 
seedbed requires less seed than one poorly pre- 
pared. A single pound of timothy seed to the acre, 
if every seed produced a thrifty plant, would pro- 
duce 2y pounds on every square foot. 

Mrs. Meredith, on her Indiana farm, devoted to 
the raising of pure-bred Shorthorns, is a very firm 
believer in a permanent pasture. She contends 
that it not only enables her to keep more live stock 
but it gives her a larger proportion of feed than 
most people think can be secured from pasture 
land. Further than this, the fact that farm animals 
become accustomed to grazing in certain fields and 
get used to a permanent pasture must be given con- 
sideration. 

While permanent pastures are highly desirable, 
temporary pastures often are a great help. These 
may be made in the North in summer by sowing 
winter cereals in the spring. A true winter cereal, 
if seeded in the spring, will not head out that year. 



PASTURES FOR GRAZING FARM ANIMALS 243 

but will produce a vast growth of leaves, which 
stock eat with a relish. These temporary pastures 
may also be grazed the following winter and some- 
times they produce a crop the next spring. The 
difficulty unsurmounted in this temporary pasture 
proposition is that there is frequently a temptation 
to keep the stock on when the ground is too wet, 
thus seriously injuring the mechanical condition of 
the soil. 



CHAPTER XVIII 

Finishing Stock for Market 

As has already been stated, the feeding of live 
stock is a difficult and complex art on account of 
the great number of influencing factors. These 
factors do not all pertain to the composition and 
combination of feeds which will produce the 
greatest absolute results in whatever line of feed- 
ing is pursued, but they relate in still greater meas- 
ure to the relative profits to be secured from dif- 
ferent feeding practices. A feeding ration which 
is well adapted to the needs of certain conditions, 
is not necessarily the best under all conditions. 
Because a certain system of feeding will produce 
given known results with a certain class of stock 
is not in itself evidence that the most profitable re- 
turns will be secured from it. The value of feed 
and the market price of finished live stock enter 
into the question and form intricate problems which 
require for their solution the best judgment that 
education and experience can furnish. What will 
prove profitable feeding practice for one season, 
with a stated value for feeds and a corresponding 
price for feeding animals, will not necessarily prove 
profitable the next season when both the raw ma- 
terial and the finished product may have far dif- 
ferent relative values. Wide experience and an 
intelligent interest in market conditions and in 
crop production will go a long way toward pro- 
moting the formation of an intelligent opinion on 
questions of values. Yet instances are numerous 
in the experience of almost every feeder when 



FINISHING STOCK FOR MARKET 245 

the opinion of those best informed upon feed and 
live stock values has proved faulty by the time the 
stock was fitted for market. 

The finishing of live stock on a basis profitable 
to the feeder is an industry that is carried on under 
continually changing conditions, and requires a 
keenness and alertness on the part of those who 
engage in it fully as great as that required in any 
business or profession. A mistake in judgment 
when purchasing steers for fattening, for instance, 
may result in a loss on the year's operations large 
enough to wipe out the profits of one or more pre- 
ceding years. Calculations based upon the hypoth- 
esis that corn will be worth 30 cents per bushel are 
entirely upset should market conditions force the 
price to 50 cents. It is a question of grave moment 
whether to market half-finished cattle when the 
price is high, or whether to continue feeding them 
on expensive feeds until finished and take a chance 
of finding a lower market. These, and numberless 
other considerations, enter so largely into the ques- 
tion of expediency in live stock feeding that the 
making of definite, set rules for the guidance of the 
farmer is an utter impossibility. The numberless 
details of market conditions and demands, of feed 
values and live stock values, of the thousands of 
little things that enter into the most successful 
type of feeding, can be gained only by experience 
and by a large degree of intelligence and observa- 
tion on the part of the feeder. While each may 
be a small thing in itself, taken collectively they 
frequently denote the difference between success 
and failure in the feeding operations of the farm 
for any term of years. There is scarcely a feeder 
of extended experience anywhere in the country 
who has not, in some particular season, lost money 



246 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

on his operations, but there are thousands who 
have procured good profits if the operations for any 
definite term of years be considered. 

FEEDING PERIODS 

Fattening stock for the market frequently de- 
mands different practice for different portions of the 
feeding period. Feeding management which will 
give the best results at the beginning of a fatten- 
ing period will seldom or never be the best during 
the finishing period. Cattle which are placed in 
a feed lot in a thin condition of flesh on account 
of insufficient feeding cannot be handled in the 
same manner as thrifty, well-conditioned stock. 
Such animals as these can be fed during the first few 
weeks upon nourishing and strength-giving feeds, 
largely of a protein nature, which will build up the 
general physical condition of the animal, enrich the 
blood, and induce a thrifty, growing condition. 
Then gradually change the feed to one of a more 
carbonaceous nature, so that fat will be formed and 
weight gained while still maintaining the strong 
muscular frame produced by the previous feeding. 
The management of growing animals is, as a rule, 
much better understood by farmers than are the best 
methods of fattening, and this refers especially to 
the finishing period of the fattening process. 

The vital question for successful marketing is, 
when is the proper time or the proper stage of de- 
velopment to market an animal to the greatest 
advantage? The answer is, of course, the time 
when it will make the most profit. This, as has 
already been pointed out, is a very difficult matter 
to decide. A visit to the live stock markets any 
day in the year will reveal large numbers of animals 



FINISHING STOCK FOR MARKET 247 

offered for sale in a partly finished condition. This 
can have but one meaning, namely, that feeders of 
experience find that under some conditions it is 
more profitable to market stock at this stage than 
to continue feeding for 30 or 60 days longer in 
order to secure a high finish. It is always true that 
well-finished animals sell for higher prices than 
those not well finished. It is not necessarily al- 
ways true that the highly finished class returns the 
greatest profit to the man who fed it on account of 
the difference in the cost of production. A lot of 
expensive feed is given to put a high finish on the 
high-priced animals, and it might easily be true 
that the cost of this feed more than offsets the dif- 
ference in price. However, it is always desirable 
to feed cattle or any other class of meat-produc- 
ing animals until they have a high finish, or 
" bloom," under all conditions where it can be done 
at a profit. These conditions are usually found 
when there is a reasonable margin between the 
value of feed and the market value of the finished 
animal. 

In competitions involving the relative merits of 
fat animals, very frequently the deciding factor will 
be that one animal or one lot has a higher finish 
than its nearest competitor. This finish of fattened 
animals may be likened to quality in breeding 
animals. It is something that is hard to define, 
being of a variable nature. Its consideration in- 
cludes not only the absolute amount of flesh the 
animal carries, but the manner of its distribution 
upon the carcass, the quality and the consistency 
of the meat and the external appearance of the 
animal. The securing of exactly the right degree 
of finish, of being able to distinguish the exact 
stage when the animals are ripe for market and of 



248 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

offering them for sale without any deterioration 
from this condition, is one of the fine points of 
successful feeding and requires the widest experi- 
ence and keenest discrimination. There are a large 
number of animals, particularly cattle, which it is 
simply a physical impossibility to feed to a finished 
condition. Such animals as old cows and types of 
the rough, poorly graded stock of no particular 
breeding, will never acquire a high finish no matter 
how long or how carefully fed. It is manifestly 
the course of wisdom to dispose of such animals as 
these as soon as they are in condition to be market- 
able. 

INFLUENCE OF AGE 

Generally speaking, it is much easier to feed 
young animals until they are finished than is the 
case with older stock. Cattle under two years of 
age which show a fair degree of beef type can 
usually be finished in excellent form, and this is 
one of the characteristics which give to baby beef 
its peculiar value. The same is true of sheep and 
hogs. Lamxbs fattened and marketed under a year 
old can be finished in almost perfect form, and hogs 
placed upon the market after careful feeding and 
management at the age of from nine to ten months, 
will invariably command a much higher price per 
pound than older animals of greater weight. Differ- 
ence in value comes through difference in quality. 

In considering the cattle feeding practice for the 
different parts of the feeding period, we may state 
that during the first several weeks the ration should 
be largely nitrogenous in its composition. This 
tends to develop the frame and feeding capacity of 
the animal in considerable degree. It gets the 
digestive and assimilative system into a condition 



FINISHING STOCK FOR MARKET 249 

favorable to the economical use of fat-forming feeds 
later on. This does not mean that an exclusively 
protein ration should be given, but simply that the 
ration used at this time may be narrower than that 
given later. The second period will demand feeds 
of a more carbonaceous nature. A liberal propor- 
tion of corn may be given, and molasses or other 
sugar-bearing food may be added if such rations as 
this are available. This is the period of gross fat 
production. Not only should fat be deposited in 
the regular fat cells of the animal's system, but also 
between the muscular fibers and upon the surface 
of the muscular frame. The ration at this time will 
be quite wide, although it must still contain a 
liberal amount of protein. 

The market requirements for meat of the best 
quality demand that the muscular tissue shall be 
well marbled ; that is, a layer of fat will alternate 
with a layer of lean meat. Feeding animals to 
produce meat of this character requires scien- 
tific feeding, and is an art in itself, which is 
done at its best by only a few feeders. An animal 
which may appear fat and smooth to the eye will 
not necessarily be fattened in this manner. Nearly 
every cattle man has seen steers which have pre- 
sented an excellent general appearance, yet the 
slaughter tests showed fat to be deposited in thick 
layers as a covering to the muscular tissue, with 
the result that the meat was of a very inferior 
quality and disappointing to the purchaser. Animals 
of this character can be distinguished only by ex- 
perienced buyers of the stockyards. A carload of 
steers, showing external fat of this kind, or which 
have been fed until the fat is deposited in such a 
way as to become " patchy," will always be dis- 
criminated against in price. 



250 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

The finishing period in a feed lot should include 
special attention to the needs of each individual 
animal. By this time the individual differences in 
feeding capacity will have manifested themselves, 
so that it may pay to divide a lot into two or more 
pens and feed each lot according to the apparent 
needs. A farmer fattening two or more carloads 
of cattle may by this means be able to dispose of 
one lot several weeks in advance of the second. 
During the finishing period a little more protein 
may be added to the ration than during the middle 
part of the feeding season. It will generally pay 
to add linseed meal to the feed at this time in rather 
liberal proportions. The beneficial effects of this 
feed will be seen in several ways. One effect is 
that, being a feed extremely rich in protein, 
it will tend to counteract the tendency of corn to 
produce excessive fat in patches. It will tend 
toward the formation of some muscular tissue along 
with the fat formation, and thus add quality to the 
meat. Its effect upon the digestion is also a de- 
sirable feature. In the advanced stages of feeding, 
the difficulty is to maintain suitable gains in profit- 
able proportions to the amount of feed used. By 
the use of oil cake at this time, the animal's diges- 
tion is kept in better condition, and gains are made 
for a longer period than would otherwise be 
possible. 

In feeding cattle, from two to three pounds of 
linseed meal a day can be given at this time, pro- 
viding the animals are gradually accustomed to its 
use. It would, of course, be disastrous to introduce 
this amount of oil meal into the ration suddenly if 
they had previously been receiving none. Another 
effect of feeds of this character which will be quite 
noticeable is its effect upon the external appearance 



FINISHING STOCK FOR MARKET 251 

of the animal. Oil meal tends to add quality. The 
animal looks smoother, its coat becomes fine and 
glossy and the hair contains much oil. Such points 
as these tell favorably when the stockyards are 
reached and when the animals are subjected to the 
inspection of a critical buyer. In hog feeding, 
tankage or other packing house by-products may 
be substituted for oil meal if it is so desired, and 
the results will be practically the same, and equally 
favorable. Hogs respond well to a rich, concen- 
trated feed of this kind, in the last few weeks of 
their fattening period, and the general tone and 
thrifty condition which they develop will easily pay 
the cost of the feed. Sheep may be fed oil meal 
the same as cattle and in proportionate amounts. 

PREPARING FOR SHIPMENT 

The last few days of the feeding season should be 
devoted to preparing the animals for shipment. A 
large proportion of the meat-producing animals 
which are sold in the packing centers are shipped 
considerable distances, varying from lOO to several 
hundred miles. The effect of this long journey is 
invariably a shrinkage in weight. How to reduce 
this shrinkage to a minimum is a problem which 
continues to engross the attention of feeders and 
shippers. In general, during the last few days in 
the feed yard, the stock should be given drier feed, 
if possible, than that to which they have been ac- 
customed. If silage or roots are being fed, this 
succulent ration should be cut off gradually during 
the last ten days, and none should be given for three 
or four days preceding shipment. Oil meal should 
be used very sparingly during the last 24 or 36 
hours and in its place a little more dry corn 



252 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

or barley should be substituted. If alfalfa or 
clover is being fed, the supply should be decreased 
and more timothy or corn fodder given. This 
treatment will tend somewhat to harden the flesh, 
and heavy shrinkage will be less likely to occur. 

The preparing of animals for market should 
include not only developing their final con- 
dition to its highest points, but keen dis- 
crimination in grading the stock. Uniformity in 
car lots has fully as much to do with the price re- 
ceived as the actual condition of the animals. Every 
farmer knows that if he takes to market a lot of 
cattle of mixed color and of varying sizes he w^ill 
be discriminated against on this account. A lot of 
pure black cattle, or a car lot in which every in- 
dividual shows the white face of the Hereford 
breed, or the pure red or roan color of the Short- 
horn, will invariably command a better price, each 
separated by itself, than if the three cars were 
mingled together in one pen and offered for sale. 
By far the greatest number of championships for 
carload lots of fat cattle at the international stock 
show at Chicago has been won by black Angus 
cattle. It is finish and uniformity which has 
brought this result in nearly every instance. 
These cattle finish remarkably well, better than the 
average of other breeds, and they are bred so true 
to type that, with good judgment in making 
the original selection, a carload can be gotten 
together in which each individual is almost exactly 
like every other one. This quality of uniformity 
is one which should receive more attention than is 
ordinarily given it. A farmer w^ho fattens more 
than one car of cattle, sheep or hogs can afford to 
spend a lot of time in selecting and separating his 
stock at shipping time so that each lot will show a 



FINISHING STOCK FOR MARKET 



253 



high degree of uniformity as to size, color and gen- 
eral condition. A car of hogs in which the in- 
dividuals vary in weight but little will always re- 
ceive favorable attention, and a lot of lambs which 
are well finished, and almost all alike, will command 
the attention of buyers when a poorly selected lot 
will be unsalable. 

It should not be expected, no matter how much 
care or how much skill be devoted to the selection 
and management of fattening stock, that the de- 
ficiencies due to early management can be overcome. 




REAR VIEW OF DAIRY BARN 



The cattle, sheep or hogs which top the market are 
in every case animals which have received good care 
and have made continuous thrifty growth from the 
moment of birth. A calf which is stunted in its 
growth during the first year, loses quality. This qual- 
ity can never be regained even under the most care- 
ful and judicious feeding. The animal may become 
thrifty, he may grow fat and make good gains upon 
the feed given, but he will never have the quality 
that a similar animal kept growing from birth will 
show. On this account it is not always possible 
for even the most successful feeders to attain the 
highly finished condition in stock which has been 



254 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

purchased by them for the feeding lot, but which 
was not under their control previous to that time. 

Prof. Thomas Shaw, known all over the world 
as an authority on live stock and feeding, writes as 
follows in Orange Jndd Fanner concerning finish- 
ing cattle for market : 

'* The method of fattening cattle with swine fol- 
lowing, is well nigh universal in the corn belt, 
where fattening is still conducted. Where only 
timothy hay or corn fodder is fed along with the 
grain, and the grain almost or entirely corn, there 
will be waste of the food, and such waste cannot 
possibly be avoided. The ration thus fed is ill- 
balanced. Experience has shown that with such 
food a good finish can be made, but it is made at 
quite a sacrifice of food. The food is too rich in 
carbohydrates to balance the protein content, hence 
a certain proportion of it will be consumed for 
which there is no return. This, when food was very 
cheap, as was the case years ago, was not of much 
moment, but now since corn has trebled in value it 
is of much moment. 

*Tt is of so much moment that it should lead farm- 
ers so to farm that the fodder fed will, in the true 
sense, be the complement of the grain fed through 
bringing it into balance. Happy are the farmer 
feeders who have clover or alfalfa hay, or even 
mixed hay, of which a part is clover, to feed along 
with the corn. AVhen such hay can be fed, it 
would seem safe to say that from 25 to 33 per cent 
less feed would answer the purpose. This would 
mean a very substantial saving in these days of 
dear grain. The feeders are also fortunate who 
can feed the corn in the form of silage. This in- 
sures a larger consumption of cheap fodder than 
would otherwise be consumed. If clover or mixed 



FINISHING STOCK FOR MARKET 255 

hay could be fed with good silage, it would seem 
safe to say that from March i to June i not more 
than 12 pounds of grain per day would be called for 
by the steer weighing 1,200 to 1,400 pounds. If, 
however, the steer can only have corn and corn 
stalks, or timothy hay, the same animal would need 
not less than 18 to 20 pounds of grain, which is 
very expensive feeding, even when swine follow. 
The fattening of cattle without swine following 
is likely to grow in favor, and for the reason, 
chiefly, that it can be done with a smaller amount of 
dear grain. It may call for some more labor. The 
grain must needs be ground. When it is ground, 
it will be mixed with cut fodder or silage, or at 
least it ought to be so mixed. The food will then 
be thoroughly digested. Because it is, a minimum 
amount of meal is called for. The saving thus ef- 
fected in the meal should more than offset the cost 
of grinding. By no other method of feeding can 
grain be fed so economically. 

"AVhen the animals are being fed on grains other 
than corn, the grain must of necessity be ground. 
Barley, rye, oats and peas, also speltz, must be 
ground to give the best results. This means that 
swine could not follow, as they would get little or 
nothing that would benefit them in the droppings. 
Oats are too dear relatively for such feeding. At 
present prices no grain is cheaper than corn, hence, 
unless the farmer has enough of home-grown grains 
it may pay him to feed corn freely. Where he does, 
two-thirds of the grain or meal may be corn. The 
other third may consist of bran and oilcake. If, 
however, he has rye, barley or speltz, or two or all of 
these, they may be made to take the place of corn. 
They should, of course, be mixed with some cut 
feed, and for such a use nothing is better than 



256 PROFITABLE STOCK IL\ISING 

silage, nor is any kind of roughage so cheap. From 
20 to 40 pounds may be fed to each animal daily, 
dependent upon the other feed, and the feeder is 
fortunate who can feed clover or alfalfa with the 
above. 

WHEN CROWDING WITH FEED 

'"The three months now being considered are the 
three finishing months of feeding the animals that 
are to be disposed of June i. Such animals should 
not be finished on grass. It would be difficult to 
maintain the gains on grass at so early a period. 
Up to ^larch i the feeding would be, in a sense, 
preliminary to the final finishing. The heaviest 
feeding of grain, therefore, would take place dur- 
ing these three months. During these months of 
crowding it is necessary to feed at least a limited 
amount of some food that will tend to keep the 
digestion in tone. When the digestion gets out of 
tone, the fact is usually disclosed by the condition 
of the droppings. The odor from them is offensive 
in proportion as the digestion is overtaxed. To 
prevent this, oilcake or wheat bran should be used. 
Oilcake is dear, but one or two pounds a day per 
animal will probably more than pay. During these 
finishing months, the animals cannot be watched 
too closely lest they get off feed. The aim should 
be to crowd them along, but not to overcrowd. It 
is the steady and continuous gains that should be 
sought, rather than rapid gains followed by slow- 
ing-up periods. As the weather gets warm in May, 
much watchfulness is necessary lest the animals 
shall lose appetite, and, in consequence, cease to 
gain. If they are to be kept longer than June I 
they should be finished on grass, accompanied by 
a limited amount of grain." 



FINISHING STOCK FOR MARKET 25/ 

FATTENING HORSES 

What has been said with regard to meat-produc- 
ing animals applies with equal force to horses being 
prepared for market. The purchase of horses in 
poor or medium condition of flesh, and feeding them 
so that they may be placed upon the city market in 
good condition, is an industry of considerable pro- 
portions in various sections of the West. The same 
principles that apply to the feeding and finishing of 
meat animals can be safely applied to horses. 
While the object for horse feeding is not simply 
for increasing the weight and fat, yet it is true that 
a horse offered upon the market while not in a very 
fair condition of flesh will not command the price 
that the fat horses would. The utility of the horse 
lies solely in his ability to expend muscular energy, 
and horse feeding must necessarily take this into 
consideration. The ration should be one which 
will develop muscular energy, but it should contain 
enough of the carbohydrate contents to cover the 
horse's ribs well with a smooth layer of fat, and 
make him appear in a healthy, thrifty condition. 
The addition of oil meal or similar concentrates to 
the ration will be more noticeable in its effects 
upon the external appearance of the horses than in 
feeding cattle. Nowhere does a shiny, silky coat 
count to better advantage than in selling horses. 
The horses with smooth, shiny, oily hair, which has 
been well groomed and cared for, will invariably 
outsell the rough-coated animal, although he be in 
himself a less valuable individual. 



CHAPTER XIX 

Outlook for Live Stock 

Stock production for profit in the United States 
IS an industry which is yearly requiring an increas- 
ing amount of skill and general intelligence. How 
to maintain breeding animals on high-priced land, 
how to rear and develop the young stock in such 
a manner as to get the greatest possible growth 
in the least time and with the smallest expenditure 
of feed, how to fatten and finish these animals for 
market, and how to market them in the most ad- 
vantageous manner, are questions which require 
for their solution ability and intelligence of no 
mean order. Each phase of the industry would 
require a volume in itself for adequate discussion. 
Upon some of these subjects a tremendous amount 
of accurate and valuable information is available. 
Other phases so change from year to year and from 
month to month that little can be said at one time 
which could be applied to conditions a year later. 
These points must be threshed out through the ex- 
perience and keen judgment of the farmer and 
feeder himself. 

THE BEEF SITUATION 

The question of the future beef supply of the 
country is one of the most interesting as well as 
the most important questions in the entire field of 
agricultural economics. For more than 50 years 
the number of cattle per capita in the United States 
has been decreasing, although the absolute num- 

258 



OUTLOOK FOR LIVE STOCK 259 

ber of cattle in the country has more than doubled. 
The pork and mutton supply of the country is more 
susceptible than the beef supply to the factors in- 
fluencing the market, due to the relatively short 
time required in increasing very largely the total 
number of either sv^ine or sheep. A serious short- 
age in the total number of cattle in the country, 
however, is a matter which cannot be made up in 
a few months, but takes years to replace. The 
price of corn is so inseparably involved with the 
production of meat that it may be considered the 
greatest factor influencing both supplies and prices 
of live stock. The present high prices of all the 
meat-producing animals are due in a large degree 
to two influences : First, the high price of corn, 
and, second, the shortage in breeding stock, espe- 
cially cattle and hogs, throughout the entire coun- 
try. 

It is the supply of cattle, however which presents 
the most interesting phase of the question of future 
meat supply. While all of the corn-growing states 
of the middle AVest are large producers and finish- 
ers of cattle, the relatively cheap production of the 
western ranges has always been a rather uncertain 
element in influencing the market conditions and 
supplies of cattle. 

In the entire trans-Missouri country the cattle 
industry in every section was a forerunner of civil- 
ization. As this advanced westward in the north- 
ern part of the United States, the pioneer cattle- 
man looked to the Texas ranges for the supply of 
breeding stock. In this way the historic old over- 
land cattle trail from Texas to Dakota was started. 
Along this trail for a number of years great herds 
of Texas cattle were moved to the northern ranges, 
and distributed throughout Nebraska, Dakota, 



260 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

Wyoming and Montana. Heavy, pure-bred Short- 
horn and Hereford bulls were imported from the 
East and from Europe in large numbers, and used 
in grading up these herds, using the Texas stock 
as the original foundation. There was gradually 
evolved a very fair type of beef animals upon the 
western and northwestern ranges. 

The days of the great Texas cattle trail were soon 
ended. This was due to the influx of farmers who 
worked their way across the West in Nebraska and 
Kansas, but it served its purpose, and established 
the great herds of the western cattle barons, whose 
halcyon days were in the late '70's and up to about 
1890. 

HOW CATTLE WERE SHIPPED 

The building of the western railroads furnished 
means for shipping the stock East, and stimulated, 
to a great extent, the population of all the range 
by cattlemen. Cattle raising on the magnificent 
scale where one company or outfit owned anything 
up to half a million head of cattle, continued until 
late in the '8o's and early '90's, when the gradual 
western advance of the farmers, with its conse- 
quent fencing of the country, caused a breaking up 
of the old bonanza cattle outfits. This movement 
reached western Nebraska in about 1889, and three 
years following saw the same inroads being made 
in the great herds of the mountain states. In those 
sections which did not attract the farmers, the 
small cattleman began to obtain a foothold, and 
to operate with relatively smaller holdings within 
the formerly acknowledged range of the cattle 
kings. 

The range sheep industry became prominent 
about this time also, and its encroachment upon 



OUTLOOK FOR LIVE STOCK 261 

the cattle territory has extended to this day. The 
settlement of the region of the great plains by 
farmers, removed, at the time of settlement, prac- 
tically all of the cattle in the country. The home- 
steader found it necessary to devote his efforts, for 
the first few years, to the production of strictly 
cash crops, and had neither time nor resources for 
raising cattle, even on a small scale. The big cat- 
tleman found it necessary to round up and ship out 
of the country his entire holdings, so that for the 
time being cattle in the newly settled regions were 
very scarce. Later, this condition was changed, so 
that today these farming sections probably produce 
a larger number of cattle than were ever held there 
under range conditions. 

In the extreme western states, the decade from 
1880 to 1890 is shown by the census reports to have 
witnessed an enormous increase in the holdings of 
cattle. The next step in range development, after 
the advent of the farmer and small rancher in cer- 
tain sections, was the leasing and acquiring title 
in various ways, to such grazing land as was pos- 
sible and especially to water, upon which success- 
ful grazing depended. With a legal foothold of this 
kind, rich cattle companies then proceeded to fence, 
not only their own leases and filings, but hundreds 
of square miles of the public domain. Here, for a 
time, cattle raising on a comparatively large scale 
flourished. 

ADVENT OF THE HOMESTEADER 

The homesteader was still a source of a good 
deal of trouble to these large cattle owners, be- 
cause of his persistence in filing on claims in- 
cluded in these pastures. The big cattleman has 
always opposed these settlements and kept them 



262 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

back as long as it was possible. The era of big 
pastures on public land came to an end a number 
of years ago, through government intervention. 
The immediate result of this was the throwing upon 
the market enormous numbers of range cattle. It 
is, no doubt, due to this fact more than to any other 
that the exportation of cattle became so heavy in 
the years between 1902 and 1906. Besides all the 
cattle of these big companies which were fit for 
slaughter being placed upon the market, the pas- 
tures and feed yard of the Mississippi valley states 
were filled with western cattle to be finished for 
market in the corn-growing states. Still there were 
large areas of land which were controlled by cattle 
raisers, and which continue, even up to the present, 
to support great numbers of range cattle. The 
holdings of individual ranchmen were very largely 
reduced, and a greater number of small cattle grow- 
ers took charge of the industry. 

Irrigation along the valleys has, meanwhile, been 
developing, so that great amounts of winter feed 
are grown and the more progressive of these ranch- 
men have begun feeding in the winter, thus reducing 
their loss and placing the business upon a more 
stable basis. Title to range land has been acquired 
by them in most cases. State and school lands have 
been leased, while the open government land has 
been used as summer range upon the rule of "First 
come first served." 

TEXAS A GREAT CATTLE STATE 

Texas has continued to be the greatest cattle- 
producing state. The holdings there have ranged 
from 7,000,000 to 10,000,000 for a great many years. 
These cattle have been kept principally in pastures 
for a long time. This is made possible by the fact 



OUTLOOK FOR LIVE STOCK 263 

that the state and individuals own all the land. 
Conditions of range and climate in the Northwest 
have served to develop a system of shipping south- 
ern cattle in the spring to the northern ranges for 
summer pasture. From the plains they are 
shipped, in autumn, grass-fattened, to the markets. 
The last five years have witnessed the inauguration 
of a far-reaching change in the economic conditions 
of both the far West and the southwestern cattle 
country. From 1900 up to 1910, there has been no 
perceptible change in the visible cattle supply. 
This, it should be remembered, is in the face of a 
20 per cent increase in population. Not only did 
the supply remain stationary for eight years, but 
within the year 1909, according to government 
figures, the total beef cattle supply decreased by 
more than 2,000,000 head. Exportations of pack- 
ing-house products and live cattle have fallen off 
in the last four years nearly 50 per cent. These 
figures, together with the transitional and indefinite 
state of the cattle business in the West, have caused 
widespread interest in the cattle situation and its 
future prospects. This shortage of 2,000,000 head 
would be hard to replace, even if there remained 
any section in which the cattle-growing industry 
were capable of immediate expansion. The change 
in western range conditions has removed any pros- 
pect of an immediate future development in that 
section. The middle states are raising more cattle 
than ever before, but we can look to no sudden in- 
crease here. Further than this, never in the history 
of the government reports have so many calves been 
slaughtered as is being done at present. Not only 
are we decreasing our supply of grown cattle, but 
we are drawing to a dangerous extent upon our 
future supply by this slaughter of calves. 



264 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

RUSHING CATTLE TO MARKET 

Recently the great receiving markets of Chicago, 
Kansas City and Omaha have been overcrowded with 
:cattle offered for slaughter in an immature and un- 
ifinished condition. A consideration of the immedi- 
'ate:reasons for these conditions is of particular in- 
terest. .The large number of western cattle offered 
marks the final closing out of nearly every big out- 
fit in the Northwest. The smaller ranchers, who 
have made establishments along creeks and rivers, 
where they are able to irrigate and raise winter 
feed, are keeping their stock, and will do so in- 
definitely. But the cattle growers whose holdings 
range from 2,000 head up have been shipping out 
the remains of their herds. 

Just the influences which have caused the large 
rancher to close out his holdings have been roughly 
outlined already. Two additional factors for cur- 
tailing the extent of cattle ranges have entered dur- 
ing the last five years. One of these is the immense 
profits which have been realized from sheep in the 
West. The steady increase in the number of range 
flocks has prevailed for the last 15 years, in spite 
of the most strenuous efforts of the cattlemen to 
keep them out of cattle-grazing territory. These 
two classes of animals are not good neighbors on 
the range, since the sheep are able to crop the grass 
much more closely than cattle. This makes it im- 
possible for cattle to live on range on which sheep 
have been pastured. Hundreds of cattle growers, 
some who were in the business on a small scale, 
and some of the large ones, have accepted the in- 
evitable, closed out their cattle holdings, and bought 
sheep instead. 

For 30 years and more, both cattlemen, sheep- 



OUTLOOK FOR LIVE STOCK 265 

men and old settlers, in general, have declared that 
the great stretches of plains which constitute the 
eastern half of the great state of Montana, that part 
of the Dakotas v^est of the Missouri river and the 
rolling prairies of eastern Wyoming and Colorado 
were unfit for anything but stock growing, and 
could never be used for any other purpose. The 
last five years have witnessed here one of the most 
remarkable changes in the history of western de- 
velopment. Upon the plains of the semi-arid belt, 
the dry farmer with his half section of homestead 
has invaded this territory in every state from the 
panhandle of western Texas to northern Montana, 
and throughout hundreds of square miles has liter- 
ally crowded both cattle and sheep out of the coun- 
try. 

Colorado stockmen have recognized the changed 
conditions, and have shown a disposition to adjust 
themselves accordingly by the admission to the 
cattle and horse growers' association of the cattle 
and horse growers of the small ranches, men whose 
stock is kept under practically farm conditions. 
Hitherto, this class has not been admitted to mem- 
bership in the association. Fred Johnson of Colo- 
rado secretary of the Colorado association, states 
that " practically the last of the big outfits have 
gone from the ranges of the centennial state." He 
adds, however, " that there were some large steer 
outfits left far back from the railroad in the north- 
western part of that state, but that the steers which 
hitherto have been readily purchased in the South- 
west are becoming scarce as the proverbial hens' 
teeth." The same is true of the great ranges of 
western Texas. This land has been found too valu- 
able to remain longer in the raw condition, and 
supports only the live stock which can be grazed 



2.(^ PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

there, and millions of acres have been sold to set- 
tlers and devoted to crop production. 

These are the influences which have so seriously 
reduced the cattle supply, and which will undoubt- 
edly further reduce it rather than bring about any 
immediate increase. Eventually, the dry-farming 
regions will raise more cattle than were ever pro- 
duced under the old range conditions, but this will 
not be in the immediate future. It is entirely likely 
that several years hence the total number of cattle 
in the country will be greater than at any previous 
period. By this time, however, the population of 
the country and the corresponding demand for beef 
will have increased to such an extent that the beef 
production per capita will never be able to catch up. 

CHEAP BEEF FOREVER GONE 

In view of these conditions, it is hard to con- 
ceive just how or why we should ever have cheap 
beef again. The number of animals kept on the 
middle West farms is continuing to increase, but 
this increase is gradual, and by no means equal to 
the rate of increase in population. Cattle growing, 
even on high-priced land, will probably continue 
to be exceedingly profitable. The ranchmen who 
have been able to stay in the business in the West 
will also realize good profits from their stock. 

It is likely that the thousands of range cattle 
which will always be produced in certain parts of 
the range country, will, in time, be fed and fitted 
for the market in the western states, instead of 
being sent to the feed yards of the middle West. 
The growing of barley, field peas, alfalfa and sim- 
ilar crops, both upon irrigated and dry farms, is 
leading cattlemen to realize what the possibilities 



OUTLOOK FOR LIVE STOCK 26/ 

are for finishing stock. A considerable number of 
them are already starting in the business, and a 
better class of cattle are being raised every year. 
This is. due to the introduction of pure blood con- 
tinually, ,and due also to the increased number of 
ranchmen who feed their cattle, especially their 
yearling calves, during the winter months, instead 
ot compelling them to rustle or starve, as in the 
old range days. 

If a shortage of cattle were the only deficiency 
the United States is facing, we might hope for a 
heavy increase in beef production within the next 
few years, but the situation in regard to wheat is 
equally acute. An increased area must be devoted 
to wheat growing if we are still to produce the 
bread supply for ourselves and the increase in pop- 
ulation. We now raise about one-sixth of all the 
cattle in the world, our strongest competitors being 
Canada and Argentina. Even now certain far-see- 
ing American packers are causing investigations 
to be conducted in South America concerning the 
feasibility of importing chilled beef from the Ar- 
gentine, 

It is extremely likely that the relatively near 
future will witness importations of beef into this 
country from South America. Meanwhile, the cost 
of home-grown beef will increase until it approx- 
imates the value of the imported article. Accord- 
ing to the Secretary of Agriculture, the farmer has 
not been getting his due share of the high prices 
for finished cattle. The price paid by the packer 
to the grower, in other words, is not as much as it 
should be when the high price of corn and the high 
retail price of beef are considered. This does not 
apply with equal force to the man who is fortunate 
enough to own, or control, cheap grass land. His 



268 PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING 

beef will cost him little, if any, more than it did 25 
years ago, while the high price of cattle will give 
him a high net return. The present is the time to 
stay in the cattle business, if it is possible to do so, 
and not the time to quit, even to enter the profit- 
able sheep business. 

Live stock production, especially that relating to 
meat animals, is now at a transitional stage in the 
United States. Old conditions are rapidly passing 
away. Cheap land and cheap feed we have no 
longer, and never will have again. The hundreds 
of thousands of square miles which only a few 
years ago constituted the free range and the free 
grass of the West have been reduced to the vanish- 
ing point, and their ultimate disappearance is only a 
question of time. The days of cheap live stock 
production by indiflferent methods have gone. The 
days of very large American export trade in meat 
have gone also. The domestic consumption so 
nearly approximates the home production as to 
leave only relatively trifling amounts of live stock 
and live stock products for export. With this 
condition has come a continually increasing popu- 
lation, which will tend to constantly increase the 
meat-producing capacity of the United States. If 
we are to continue as a nation producing its own 
foodstuffs, it will be necessary to have vast in- 
creases in our meat production in the relatively 
near future. Public ranges can no longer be 
looked to to supply this increase. It must come 
from the high-priced farms of the Mississippi 
valley, from the old settled portions of New Eng- 
land, and from the great undeveloped agricultural 
empire of the South. In time, the far West may 
be expected to produce more stock than it does 
now, but little of this supply can ever again be 



OUTLOOK FOR LIVE STOCK 269 

diverted to the eastern centers of population on 
account of the greater demand for meat products 
on the part of the West itself. This is illustrated 
forcibly by conditions which exist at this writing. 
Only a few years ago many thousands of hay-fed 
cattle from the ranches of Montana were annually 
marketed in Chicago and other eastern markets. 
At present, although there is little, if any, reduction 
in the number of these animals fed in Montana, 
the East gets very few of them. Nearly all are 
shipped across the mountains to supply the meat 
demands of the Pacific Northwest and Alaska. This 
present and prospective demand for animals and an- 
imal products merits the attention of every American 
farmer. He should carefully weigh the considerations 
both for and against live stock farming before he 
definitely determines to abandon it in favor of 
grain production. He should become very keenly 
alive to the advantages of stock farming and to the 
returns which it is possible for him to secure from 
it. As an average, he has never made the most 
of his opportunities in this line, but conditions are 
now such as to merit greater attention to details 
of breeding and management and the securing of 
correspondingly greater returns for his labor and 
investment. To the individual farmer the methods 
of profitable live stock production are of vital im- 
portance, since upon their solution depends his own 
ability to remain in the live stock business. To the 
American farmer, as a class, the live stock problem 
has even greater significance, because upon its in- 
telligent solution rests, in a large degree, the future 
agricultural prosperity of the country, and the hope 
of ultimately placing the agriculture of this coun- 
try on a permanent and stable basis. 



INDEX 



Page 
Abandoned land made productive 33 

Abandoned southern lands 20 

Agriculture, principles of perma- 
nent 18 

In western Europe 20 

Eastern agriculture, failure of 

one-crop system in 41-43 

re-adjustment of 44 

place of legumes in 45 

English agriculture, features of 29 
Southern agriculture, demands 

Improved live stock 46 

artificial fertilizer used in. . . . 47 
importance of dairying to ... . 53 

diversification in 55 

Alfalfa, effect upon soil 37 

value of for horse feeding 201 

pasture for sheep 172 

feeding to swine 182 

hay, value of for dairy feed 128 

Baby beef, defined 214 

reasons for development of . . 2 1 4, 215 

effect of age upon gains 216, 217 

type of calves suited for 216 

sources of stock for feeding . .217, 218 
adaptation of dairy calves for 

219, 220 

methods of feeding for 219 

grain mixtures for feeding 220 

forage suitable for 220 

pasture for 220 

quality and finish of 223 

weight for age 223 

time for marketing of 224 

length of feeding season for 224 

Indiana experience in feeding 225-227 

Beef cattle, approved type of 81 

conformation and type of 81 

quality in 82 

Beet pulp, value of for sheep feed- 
ing 168 

Breed, principles governing selec- 
tion of 71-78 

Breeding, object of 89 

inbreeding 92, 93 

line breeding, desirability of ... . 92 

principles of 73 

importance of pure-bred sire 

89. 90, 94 
discussion of cross-breeding. ... 91 

cross-breeding, risk in 91 

results of cross-breeding 74 

when crossing is profitable 74 

Breeding stock, how to select 73 

manap;ement of young 94, 95 

feeding of young 94-96 



Page 

Calves, feed of 222 

Cattle, feeding of 66, 67 

maintenance rations for 110 

com silage for fattening 113 

dual purpose type of 121 

Cattle industry, growth of 259, 260 

Colts, feeding of 199 

general management of 200 

Concentrates Ill 

Continuous grain growing, soil 

maintenance for 24 

Co-operative breeding associations 

125, 126 

Co-operative testing systems 126 

Com fodder, shredding for feeding 231 
Corn silage, results of use at Pur- 
due University 113 

Cotton seed, importance of in stock 

feeding 49 

value of to South 50 

Crop rotation, importance of. . .22, 23 
Crop yields, decreased by continu- 
ous grain growing 57, 58 

Dairy, sources of loss in 69 

Dairy bams, necessity for 132 

sanitary and efficient types of 133, 134 

Dairy cattle, characteristics of ... . 82 

conformation of 82 

quality and type of 83 

increasing efficiency of 54 

methods for increasing efficiency 

of 123 

more and better ones needed . . . 122 
unprofitable dairy cows must be 

eliminated 124 

elimination of disease in 132 

profitable herd, how to build up 71 

Dairy industry, magnitude of 116 

field for improvement of. ...117, 118 
examples of milk production in 118 
revolutionized by modem ma- 
chinery 118, 119 

profits obtainable in 138 

development of in Denmark. ... 117 

requires intensive agriculture. . . 117 

Illinois experience 133-138 

Dairying, average production per 

cow 54 

Indirect returns from 141, 142 

importance and relation of to soil 

maintenance 142-144 

types of 119, 120 

Dairying on high-priced land 70 

Deep plowing essential 36 

Diversification of northwestern 

agriculture 2 



271 



2^2 



INDEX 



Page 
Draft horses, desirable character- 
istics of 79 

description of ideal 80 

Eastern land, proximity to market 

of 34 

Essentials for profitable stock pro- 
duction 3 

]''xhausted land problem in China 19 
Farm labor, relation of live stock 

farming to 30 

Feed, waste of in Mississippi valley 114 

Feeding, object of 105 

balanced ration In 106 

influence of individuality in. . . . 99 

basic principles of 100 

properly blended rations best ... 101 

nutritive ratio in 102 

nutritive ratio, wide or narrow 102 
importance of scientific methods 

in 115 

periods of 246 

forage plants suitable for 106 

influence of age upon 108, 248 

etlect of unbalanced rations in . . 109 
influence of one-sided rations in 249 
value of grains and forage for. . 115 

value of roots for 112 

value of beet pulp for 112, 113 

methods of, in dairying 127 

Feeding rations for ewes and lambs 157 

Feeds, general classes of 100 

nitrogenous, character of 100 

protein 100 

carbohydrates, definition of... 100 
non-nitrogenous, nature of . . . . 100 

value of corn plant 103 

chemical analysis of 103 

variation of to meet objects In 

feeding 104, 105 

different concentrates in Ill 

succulent characteristics in 112 

grass and balanced rations 112 

com silage one of most valuable 113 
combination suitable for fatten- 
ing lambs 165, 166 

Finish, market requirements of . . . 249 

Finishing, discussion of 254, 255 

Finishing period, feeding practiced 

for 250 

Grass, ideal dairy feed 130 

Hogging off crops, practicability of 183 

cost of 184 

Horses, feeding of 200 

feeds best suited for 200 

fattening for market 257 

value of in United States 189 

average value of 189 

number raised annually 189 

heavy importations of 190 

best type for farm 190 

selection of breed 192 

selection of breeding stock 193 

points of conformation 193 

examination of for unsoundness 196 

requirements for draft 195 

Hot-house lambs, definition of . . . . 229 
equipment for raising 229, 230 



Page 

Hot-house lambs, breeding for. . . 230 

shelter for 232 

feeding and management of ... . 233 

marketing of 234 

best weight for 235 

profits derived from 235, 236 

Humus, source of supply 34 

increasing the supply of 37 

function of 23, 24 

Immigration turning eastward ... . 33 

India, soil depletion in 19, 25 

Jacks, description of breeds 205 

types and characteristics of 205, 206 
mammoth, origin of 207 

Jethro Tull, teachings of 21 

Lambs, care and management 

of 155, 156 

feeding for market 164, 165 

Legumes, place in feeding rations . . 106 

give increasing crop yields 38 

grow luxuriantly in South 45 

importance of to east 35 

Live stock, economic importance of 4 

increasing the supply of 5 

prices of 5, 6 

numbers and distribution 7, 8, 9 

number per capita 15 

improvement of 16 

principles of management of . . 16, 17 

on high-priced land 61 

field for 17 

adaptation to southern condi- 
tions 48 

not all profitable 68 

sources of information concern- 
ing 68 

elimination of unprofitable 69 

selection of 79 

quality in 79 

value of pure bred 97, 98 

marketing of 246 

preparing for shipment 251, 252 

Live stock farming vs. grain farm- 
ing 28 

Live stock situation, discussion of 258 

Manure, value of in soil mainte- 
nance 59, 60 

care of 37 

Marketing, value of uniformity in 253 

Market rmlk, production of . . . 120, 121 
must be produced under sanitary 

conditions 131 

figures of high production of . . . . 137 

Meat animals, feeding and manage- 
ment of 96 

Meat production, transitional stage 

of 268, 269 

Milk, importance of recording pro- 
duction of 123 

utility of in swine gTo^^^ng 180 

Mules, large southern importations 

of SO 

strong market demand for 203 

range of values of 204 

origin of in America 204 

type demanded by present mar- 

ket 207 



INDEX 



^7Z 



Page 
Mules, weight and conformation 

desirable 208 

characteristics inherited 208 

care and management of 209 

feeding of 210 211 

breaking to work 211-213 

Nitrogen, supply increased by- 
legumes 37 

amount removed by crop 59 

amount contained in manure 59, 60 
Oil meal, place in feeding rations 

for horses 202 

during finishing period 251 

Pastures, acreage devoted to in 

United States 237 

importance of 237 

commercial fertilizing mixtures 

for 240 

returns from permanent 238 

value of blue grass 238 

fertilization of 238, 239 

Brome grass 239 

preparing land for permanent 

pastures 239 

suitable seed mixtures for 240 

Bermuda grass for 240 

maintenance of 241 

timothy and clover for 242 

relative value of different grasses 

for 181 

value of rye for 181 

value of rape for 181, 182 

alfalfa, for sheep 172 

crop desirable for swine 178 

fall crops for sheep 172 

feed value of 13, 14 

Phosphorus, amount removed by 

crop 59 

amount contained in manure 59, 60 
Potash, amount removed by crop 59 
amount contained in manure 59, 60 
Protein, proportion required for 

milk production 129 

Quality lost is never regained 253 

Ranches, large, causes for passing 

of 261-277 

Rape feed, value of 181, 182 

Rotations, suitable for stock farm- 
ing 38, 39 

importance of crop 22, 23 

Russia, agricultural poverty of ... . 25 

Rye, value of for pasture 181 

Selling crops in bulk bad practice 60 
Sheep, history of in America. .145, 148 
N number of in early Spanish terri- 
tories 146 

original source of American 

stock 146-148 

dual purpose type of 148 

distribution and number in 

United States 147, 148 

modern type desired 148, 149 

breeding for dual purpose type 

of 149, 150 

management of breeding 

stock 150, 151 

feeds suitable for 151 



Page 
Sheep, feeds suitable for breeding 

animals 151-153 

value of roots for feeding 

sheep 152, 153 

winter management of 153, 154 

on valuable land 62, 169 

management of at lambing period 156 
feeding rations for ewes and 

lambs 157 

pasture essential for 158 

fall feeding of 159 

docking and shearing 159, 160 

shearing, hand and machine 

methods 160, 161 

treatment of for parasites ... 162, 163 

scabies in 163 

dipping, types of plant suitable 

for 163 

treatment for internal parasites 164 

tobacco for 164 

fattening for market 167 

feeding old ewes 167 

economic utility of 168 

number maintained per acre. ... 169 

future of in United States 170 

as soil improvers 169 

land suitable for 171 

management of ewes for winter 

lambs 231 

mutton type of 84 

conformation of mutton type . . 84, 85 

Sheep husbandry, importance of . . 63 
Shipment, preparing live stock 

for 251, 252 

Silage, essential to cheap milk 

production 127 

value of in dairying 139 

Single crop system bad 28 

Soil, maintenance and management 21 

depletion in south 48 

depletion hastened by old 

methods 32 

depletion cause of famine 18 

fertility, determination of 22 

nitrogen and phosphorus 23 

maintenance, importance of live 

stock to 24, 25 

measure of producing capacity of 35 
increasing water holding capacity 

of 35 

injured by working when wet. . . 36 

improved by alfalfa 37 

inoculation of for alfalfa or clover 38 

enriching by means of live stock 38 

mechanical condition of 39 

supplying humus in 39 

maintenance, demands more live 

stock 27 

Soils, amount of fertility removed 

by crops 59 

South should grow its own work 

stock 51 

wonderful land for legumes 52 

dairy products imported into 52, 53 
Southern cities, milk supply of 

inadequate 53 



274 



INDEX 



Page 

Southern com crop, reasons for low 

average >'ield 49 

Southern lands, abandonment of . . 20 

Stallions, selection of 194 

feeding and management of . . . . 197 

Swine, supply of 64 

feeding for profit 65, 66 

cross-breeding of 74 

types of 86. 174 

points of conformation 86, 175 

weight for market 86 

effect of injudicious feeding upon 109 

importance of pasture for 109 

maintenance rations for llO 

breeds of 1 73 

characteristics of different breeds 174 
desirable points of breeding ani- 
mals 175, 176 

defects in breeding stock 176 

selection for fecundity 176 

care of breeding animals 177 

forage plants for 178 



Page 

Swine, pasture crops desirable for 178 

succulent feed in winter for 178 

winter of spring pigs 179 

management of fall litters 179 

feeds best for producing growth 180 

value of forage for 181 

alfalfa for 182 

methods of pasturing 183 

concentrates for fattening . . . 184, 185 

on high-priced land 186 

fluctuating supply of 186 

market demands as to type 187 

high prices of '. 187 

rapidity of increase 188 

Swine growing, possibilities of in 

the south 51 

Tenant farming, tendency of 12 

Texas fever, eradication of in south 48 

Tillage, importance of 21, 36 

deep plowing essential 36 

Wool, handling and packing 162 

importation of into United States 170 



FEB u tail 



One copy del. to Cat. Div. 



FEB m 1911 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



DDD0fi'=]^23ba 



';H.' 



,Mil 



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